IB2020

FIELD REPORT ON THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT USHARAL-ILIBALYK, KAZAKHSTAN IN 2021

INTRODUCTION

The archaeological excavations at the Usharal-Ilibalyk site in the Panfilov district (Almaty Oblast), Republic of Kazakhstan, has completed its sixth season. Cooperation between Archaeological Expertise (Almaty, Kazkhstan), the Society for the Exploration of Eurasia (Switzerland), the Lanier Center for Archaeology (Lipscomb University, USA), and the Archaeological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan, along with other independent donors, more than 26 archaeologists, hundreds of volunteers, and local workers from Usharal and around Kazakhstan, have made these excavations over this period quite successful. This project has revealed a major medieval city along the important trade network north of the Tien Shan mountains spanning the Ili Valley and Dzungarian Basin. Moreover, significant evidence has uncovered a large community belonging to the Church of the East dating from the 13th through 14th centuries. This data has provided important new information, such as evidence of a Christian community that lasted several generations within the territory of modern Kazakhstan; complementing our knowledge of other knowns sites in the southern (Chuy Valley) and northern Zhetisu (Semirechye) (Ili Valley) during the Mongol era.

Our findings have provided exceptional new information pertaining to epigraphy as revealed in the five gravestones (kayraks) with inscriptions in Old Turkic and Syriac providing names of the individuals who lived along this Silk Road city demonstrating both their religious and Turkic backgrounds. The excavations of the cemetery, thus far, has revealed homogeneous burial practices of 90 graves, with the interred ranging in age from still born to elderly, together with 39 gravestones. Survey work indicates the possible existence of an additional 100 graves, and more clearly delineated the boundaries of the cemetery which, by preliminary estimates may contain up to 500 burials in total.

A topographical survey of the entire medieval city, and excavations in the shahristan (administrative center), has confirmed its municipal boundaries which would have incorporated more than 5 km2. Ramparts, over six meters in height, once surrounded the shahristan. Rabads (residential, commercial, and production centers) occupied areas around the shahristan along the fertile flood plain between and around two small streams. Within the ramparts a monumental bathhouse, with Roman-style hypocaust system, was revealed along with a horde of jewelry, including coral and cowrie shells—these types of buildings and objects indicate cultural and trade connections extending far west to the Mediterranean Sea and far south to the Indian Ocean. Likewise, the grave goods have revealed similar wide-ranging connections as well as local practices and manufacture.

This 2020 season, though abbreviated due to Covid-19 travel restrictions, yielded the existence of either a small church or, more likely, a funerary chapel immediately south of the portion of the cemetery in Area C (Fig. 1). The building (8.5 x 23 m), constructed of mudbrick and positioned along a precise east-west axis, demarcated the southern extent of the cemetery. Its high-status pottery, including glazed oil lamps with possible Christian symbolism and a thurible, demonstrates its ritual function. Six large stones were found along the northern and southern walls, served as column bases, suggesting a hall-like area to the west (Block 2). The eastern section of the building (Block 1) was square and included internal pilasters so that a domed structure was possible; if so, it is estimated to have been at least eight meters in height.

Fig. 1: Hypothetical reconstruction of Area C, U-12 possible funerary chapel and accompanying top plan. Ills. by Charles A. Stewart

2: Hypothetical reconstruction of possible funerary chapel illustrating 2-phases of construction. Ills. by Charles A. Stewart

Heading into our 2021 season, questions remained concerning whether additional structures might be present in the area. What is the connection between the western rabad and the cemetery, particularly in Area B? During the 2017 season, we discovered evidence of residential occupation very close to the cemetery (originally interpreted as a phase after the cemetery fell into disuse); however, this interpretation has been revised since new data has been uncovered, such as ceramics, that indicates such occupation was contemporary with the cemetery. Are there further clues concerning the identity of the structure (Unit-12) and its function? A closer investigation of the church/chapel and its surrounding context was needed to see if it could be more specifically identified, and whether the structure was isolated or part of a larger complex of buildings. Midden pits near the chapel to the south needed to be investigated since these could yield more cultural

material related to both the community and/or the structure. Excavations to the south and west could also help determine if all the burials lie strictly to the north of the structure.

Finally, what was the connection and chronology between the burial discovered in Area B (further to the east) with those of Area C? As our samples of radiocarbon dates increase, a clearer picture of chronology is emerging; most burials in Area C are connected to the early to mid-14th century. The discovery of a grave in Area B compeled us to investigate this 100-meter gap between the respective burials, to see if there is any evidence of a boundary between the two areas; if so, this phenomenon could indicate a chronological shift or a spatial division based on social status, or some other explanation.

Based on our research questions, the following objectives guided our archaeological investigations for 2021.

Fig. 3. Drone photo with overlaid Area boundaries (B, C, D) from Field IV comprising general area of cemetery

As our field report will demonstrate, almost 80% of the above-mentioned objectives were either fully or partially accomplished. Limitations due to the Covid-19 pandemic meant that the dates for our excavations could only occur between September 28 – October 24, 2021. This is a time in which climactic conditions are in seasonal transition in southeast Kazakhstan, thus, our efforts were hampered occasionally by rain which meant not everyday could be spent in the field. For the second year in a row, we were without our international colleagues and volunteers due to travel and social restrictions into and within Kazakhstan due to the pandemic. Thus, our excavation team was only about a third of the size from previous seasions. During excavations, all local and national governmental regulations were followed, with all our workers outside the village of Usharal fully vaccinated. All workers were screened daily with body temperature checks at the beginning and end of the workday. In addition, all official permissions were obtained and regulations, as outlined by the Ministry of Culture for the Republic of Kazakhstan and the forestry officials for the regionally protected area of the Panfilov district where our excavations in Area C have taken place, continue to be followed according to the pertinent laws and regulations.

Our dig plan placed a priority on excavating those areas of the site that might provide the most significant information in the shortest amount of time. Thus, our first priority was to focus on Area C, Unit 12, and a large section of ground to the south of this Unit, dubbed Unit 13. The team sought to determine if additional structures lie in the area to the south and west of the structure found the previous season and to see if there are any burials close to or in direct relationship with the structure.

Our second priority was to focus on the space immediately south of Area B, Unit 7 to see if a structure lies in relation to the midden pits discovered last season. Previous GPR data (2017) suggested a wall or significant mudbrick detritus. Finding more structures could assist in a broader interpretation of the site overall. However, due to our personnel limitations, it was decided to not attempt to excavate in Area B this season. With only two professional archaeologists in the field, the ability to properly supervise workers in two separate locations separated by a very large hedge row was not ideal, thus, this part of the dig plan had to be abandoned.

Our third priority was to locate more graves due west of the burials discovered in Area C (specifically Units 7 and 8). This would hopefully “close the gap” between the large number of burials in Area C and the one discovered almost 100 meters east in Area B the previous season. It would confirm the existence of burials extending to the west and provide further confirmation of the size of the cemetery and if our current estimates on the number of interments are correct. Obtaining more forensic data would assist with things such as chronology from a combination of radiocarbon dating, pottery, and possible grave goods that might shed more light on the Christian community of Ilibalyk. As the report indicates, progress was made, and our goals even exceeded in this particular objective.

All the topographical, photographic, and excavation equipment used in previous seasons has been utilized during the 2021 expedition. Full specifications and descriptions can be found in previous field reports and will not be delinated here. Excavations were conducted utilizing hand shovels, trowels, and other hand tools. Because the site is located on an environmentally protected area and for the sake of preserving the architectural features previously discovered, soil has been backfilled and certain grave sites as well as the revealed funerary chapel were covered with

Geotech fabric. Excavations began with the re-exposure of these sites, particularly Unit 12. The fabric proved quite effective in preserving the mudbrick foundations discovered in 2020.

The following field report provides descriptions of each element of the excavations and preliminary interpretations of those excavations; descriptions, photographs and drawings of discovered artifacts; field forensics and initial data from the graves excavated; and an analysis of the chronological data; and the subsequent hypotheses derived from the various interpretations of the findings.

This unit, which was previously delineated during the 2019 season, incorporated the west- central sector of Area C and including 2018 season’s Units 1, 2, and 6 within the overall context. The unit has a rectangular shape and measures 8.4 meters on the northern side, 18.1 meters on the western side, 9.7 meters on the southern side, and 17.5 meters on the eastern side for a total of 162 m2. The surface levels from the previously cleared surface were 597.500 m. asl. in the north and 597.300 m. asl. in the south.

Of the 8 loci which were identified as potential graves in 2019, two contained visible human remains (juvenile skulls). The others were observed mudbrick construction which indicated probable graves, but without excavation this could not be confirmed. Half of the possible graves appeared to be small and/or were loci with the juvenile skulls found in the cleared soil. The other half appeared rather large which could contain larger children or adult graves. Unit 8A lay due north of Unit 9A and northeast of the newly excavated Unit 14. This unit contained Locus 111A/B which was excavated during this current season and marks the first grave(s) to be fully excavated within Unit 8A.

A decision was made to also investigate a possible grave first revealed during the 2019 season that was in U-8A, which lay immediately northeast of Unit 14. This locus was located due north of Unit 6, a section excavated in 2018 that contained 5 graves, 4 infants (L-012, L-030, L- 031, L-032 and one adult, L-049), a male estimated to be over 50 years old.

The grave as seen from the surface appeared to be that of an adult due to the row of at least 20 ash-colored bricks that were possibly laid vertically on their ledges over the grave, which would have identified the grave as a Type 2B, but, as seen below, this interpretation would be modified. (See Diagram 3, pg. 234 in the 2019 field report) Another probable grave, labeled L-195, also in U-8A was visible in the baulk of the old Unit 6 (excavated in 2018) and also appeared to have a row of vertically placed bricks. This latter grave lies due east of the northeast boundary of U-14. Time restraints prohibited investigation of L-195.

The grave was once again revealed clearly in the soil just as it was discovered in 2019. The twenty rows of gray-colored bricks (made from ash fill or gray clay). Clearing of the soil and bricks in association with the grave showed that the gray-colored bricks had both animal bone and ceramic slag as a part of the temper for brick construction. This is a significant confirmation that large particles of temper were included in these ash-colored bricks. Previous seasons raised the question to whether potsherds found within the graves were intentionally placed or were merely a part of the soil fill or from the fabric of the bricks. This seems to confirm the latter hypothesis. It should be noted, however, that the specific bricks of L-111 were filled with an exceptional amount of this cultural material used as temper, thus, it exceeds the norm of mudbricks seen in graves throughout the cemetery.

Following this initial clearing with hand tools, new photographs and levels were taken with a total station: W: 597.111 m. asl.; C: 597.194 m. asl.; E: 597.277 m. asl. Initially, the bricks were further defined by lowering the soil around the edges. What appeared to be a human bone (clavicle?) was seen under a brick on the southwest side of the row of bricks.

Skeletal Levels for L-111A: Skull (W): 596.866 m. asl.; Pelvis: (C) 596.761 m. asl.; Feet (E) 596.720 m. asl. Closing levels of grave floor: W: 596.707 m. asl.; C: 596.681 m. asl.; E: 596.686
m. asl.

Excavations began in this locus in the northeast corner of the brick-covered grave following the full exposure of the remains in L-111A. Skull fragments, very tiny metacarpals, and a few phalanges were exposed in this small grave pit surrounded by a “brick box” measuring 23 (E/W) x 15 cm (N/S) cm and located at the northeast side of the brick covering for L-111A. This confirmed the presence of either a newborn or stillborn buried most likely in connection with the grave in L-111A.

The body appeared to also have a west-to-east orientation since the skull fragments were on the western side of the small grave. Photos were taken of the bones. The skull was extremely fragmented and could not be kept in place even with careful brushing of the soil. The bones were too fragile to be kept in situ but could only be removed from the soil. They were collected with the only other recognizable bones among the fragments being 3 ribs and possibly a clavicle bone. One partial orbit bone from the cranium was found along with an underdeveloped sacrum. A few deciduous teeth were found and following the analysis by our on-site dental pathologist, it was determined that these teeth had never erupted from the mandible. Thus, it is believed these remains come from either a newborn or stillborn child.

A plausible interpretation from the data is that the child and female in U-111A died during childbirth and the child was subsequently buried in the small brick tomb placed at the northeast corner of the brick covering for the niche grave (see above). Following the interment of the possible female in the grave, the child was interred with the square chamber created by one course of bricks and then possibly covered with soil or covered with another brick.

The remains were bagged and labeled. The bottom of the grave pit was measured with a total station at 597.124 m. asl. Photos were taken of the locus individually and in the context of L-111A.

Unit 12

Unit 12 was originally excavated in 2020 (see 2020 Field Report, pgs. 11-13) delineated as rectangular in shape with the sides oriented along the north-south and west-east axis. The unit measured 22.5 m from north-to-south with a width of 32 m from west-to-east line. This made the total area approximately 660 m2. Over the course of the previous year, herbaceous vegetation had regrown, even with the layer of Geotech fabric that had extended over the entirety of this unit laying just 5-7 cm under the soil placed to protect the architectural feature discovered during the previous dig.

This is the third time that a significant portion of Unit 12 had been exposed, even though the unit was first designated at Unit 12 in 2020. Previous exposure occurred in 2017 in which the topsoil layer was removed by mechanical means. One trench (5 x 5 m) was dug at that time (first designated as Unit 2, but a subsequent unit in 2018 in Area C also received this designation) in this section which revealed a large stone (40 х 31 х 9 cm) with hundreds of pick marks but with no discernable inscription or design as well as a pottery fragments and animal bone. (See 2017 dig report, pp. 107-116, 119- 120, 158).

Excavations in U-12 revealed a rectangular building 21 (E/W) x 8.7 (N/S) m in dimension with an east-to-west orientation. The building consisted of three rooms and a possible courtyard and is fully explained in the 2020 Field Report (see pp. 12-30). The team has interpreted this structure as a possible funerary chapel based on the building’s orientation, its architectural layout and its context being situated due south of the cemetery. In addition, high status pottery and ecclesiastical artifacts add to the possible religious function of the structure. Agricultural activity impacted the features of this building and only the lowest layer of the building can be traced in the soil. Foundation stones in the eastern half of the structure designate a probable hall with the stones serving as wooden post foundations, which suggests a possible vaulted ceiling. The area also showed signs of burning which may have contributed to its collapse. For the remainder of this report, references to this feature in U-12 will be simply called “the structure” or “funerary chapel.”

Excavators identified 51 loci within U-12 in 2020. Most of these were various architectural features associated with the structure. One grave and one possible grave with an undetermined accompanying feature (L-185) with a kayrak (gravestone, L-234) were also noted to the north of the structure. Two small furnaces (known in the Central Asian context as a tandoor,) were found, one (L-214) appeared to be outside the structure, yet associated with it, the other (L-220) appeared inside the possible altar area (designated Room 3) on the far east side of the building. To the south of the structure, a series of ash pits and/or middens were also identified. Within two of these pits, a significant amount of pottery was found in 2020 (L-222, L-223). This southern area became a focal point for the 2021 excavations along with the sector of Area C that extends south of U-12 (designated as Unit 13, see below).

At the start of this 2021 excavation, U-12 was re-exposed following the removal of the Geotech fabric which revealed the cleared surface of L-212 and preserved the mudbrick and features of the structure quite well. Only a few selected loci both to the north and south of the funerary chapel were examined over the course of the current excavation. These descriptions are detailed below.

This locus designated the cleared level of U-12. The final cleared level of the locus that designated all of U-12 measured at the conclusion of 2020 measured as follows: SW: 597.150; NW: 597.480; NE: 597.631; SE: 597.336 m. asl.

As the Geotech fabric was cleared from the locus, the backfilled soil still contained cultural material from the redistributed soil. Pottery sherds and animal bone were collected in buckets with the understanding that there was no appropriate context and/or matrix from where they were discovered.

Most of the pottery fragments were composed of the same common ware discovered during previous seasons. A few pieces of glazed pottery were also found, but most significantly a fragment of worked white granite was found. This piece (approximately 5 cm x 3 cm) had a curved surface on one side that had been obviously smoothed. Both sides of the fragment were chipped, and their outer surfaces were rough, unlike the curved upper surface. This piece was possibly a fragment for some sort of memorial marker or gravestone, given the context of the nearby cemetery.

(1) It has been recently detected that Loci 212 – 215 had been previously designated during the 2019 season, thus creating duplicate loci numbers within Area C. This will be corrected with the eventual publication of an errata document in the future. For now, any reference in this report to Loci 212 through 215 should be considered those designated during the 2020-21 season.

Follow the removal of the Geotech fabric from L-212, roots and growth that occurred between seasons were removed. The loci from the previous season were re-identified. The preservation of the structure was excellent with the only damage being the identifiable hooves of a horse that had run just south and parallel with the section of the structure’s southern wall L-245, L-246, L-247).

During final clearing of the backfill of the locus, in the southeast corner of U-12, some soil was cleared around a bush that had remained untouched as a part of the natural conservation regulations which had not been completely lowered the soil during the previous season. This yielded a small scatter of pottery and one fired brick.

This locus, identified in 2020, was a “tandoor” oven (furnace) found in the northeast side of U-12 and measured 50 cm in diameter at a level of 597.647 m. asl. The ceramic remains of the oven had remained in the soil and were disarticulated from the soil. These small fragments (127) were gathered. One burned animal bone was also found in the fill. This tandoor is likely associated with the structure found in U-12 although it may also have been added later and used independently of the structure and the cemetery.

Locus 222, identified in the 2020 season and located to the southwest of the structure in U- 12, was thought to be a possible midden. The locus lay to the east of L-223 and northwest of L-
265. Initial lowering of the soil revealed calcinated (red) soil interspersed with small areas of ash. After the initial sweep of 1-2 cm, new photos were taken of this locus first identified the previous year. The feature was an amorphous shape and initially identified on the surface as measuring 150 (N/S) x 100 (E/W) cm.

The entire fill of this feature was ash with almost no cultural material, particularly within the area of the main fill. This was a major contrast to excavations at this location in the previous season in which the locus yielded not only ash, but also a significant amount of pottery and bones. Photos were taken and the harder soil at the bottom of the ash was measured with a total station: N:
597.018 m. asl. S: 597.083 m. asl. Final dimensions of the revealed locus were 160 N/S x 50 E/W cm. Final photographs were taken and the locus was closed. It was noted that the ash fill may extend further north and possibly indicated a connection with the structure. In the greater context of the excavation in the newly exposed Unit 13, it appears to be part of the larger area of burning and ash fills found throughout the area south of the structure.

Eventually, during further clearing, the boundaries of L-222 and L-223 were combined since the ash fill appeared to spread across both loci. This new ash level, about 5 cm below the cleared surface of L-212 and extending an additional 5 cm lower resulted in opening a new locus, L-283 (see below)

Locus 223
Ash fill

This locus which lay due east of L-222 was investigated due to color in the soil noticed during the 2020 excavations at a cleared level of 597.155 m. asl. It, too, was a possible midden. From this location at the upper levels in the fill of L-212, a significant amount of cultural material, including pottery and animal bones were found. Photos were taken prior to further excavation Like L-222, Excavations revealed a large amount of ash with only a small amount of pottery and no bone discovered at these lower levels as compared with excavations in 2020. This seems to indicate that almost this entire sector of the southwestern side of U-12 was a place of burning prior to it being a place of waste disposal. Ash appeared to be on top of a previous organic layer.

The initial boundaries (38 x 62 cm) of the feature were extended further because of the continued presence of ash approximately 10 cm below the cleared surface of L-212 that had been lowered to the possible layer of occupation. Since this ash layer extended throughout the whole area at this lower level, including up to the southern wall of the structure, this lower ash layer level may be the actual level of occupation, however, this is indeterminate.

Ash continued to be found approximately 5 cm below the previously cleared surface of L- 212 and the ash was traced to the east beyond the previous boundaries of the locus. In this area to the east there was more pottery and cultural material.

The boundaries continued to be expanded across the 5-7 cm depth from the previously cleared surface of L-212. A possible pit was found in a location where the soil was soft. Near this location eventually a very unform circle appeared in the soil following mechanical clearing. Also, in this vicinity several large pot fragments were found that may be part of a whole vessel.

The bottom of the ash layer eventually was reached at about the 10-12 cm below the cleared surface of L-212, however, the ash layers appeared to be quite extensive possibly throughout all the loci found on the southwest side of the structure in U-12. It is not exactly clear if this ash was the result of a large conflagration perhaps in relation to the structure, or if it is related to burning/cooking or waste disposal. The lack of a significant amount of pottery at the lower depths and or signs of building rubble create problems with a “conflagration scenario.” However, it must be remembered that burning was also discovered within the structure of U-12 in 2020. In addition, GPR results provided readings of burning within the funerary chapel as well (See 2020 Field Report, p. 74). Initially, everything that was thought to be a midden pit in L-222/223 as seen from the surface proved not be a “textbook” definition of a trash pit. While pottery waste, animal bones, and burning were found, no deep pits for the specific purpose of waste disposal were present. It appears that the pottery disposal may have occurred later on top of the areas of burning, perhaps at the conclusion of the life of the building.

As mentioned above, following mechanical clearing of the soil, a feature did appear within L-223 that was a uniform circle with a darker soil fill (Munsell 7.5 YR 6/2 Pinkish gray). The hole was excavated and measured 24 x 24 x 12 cm. This uniform measurement demonstrates that the hole was deliberate and could be a post hole, however, the ash and other cultural material raises the question that if this was a post, what was is supporting?

At the bottom of the hole’s fill a metal fragment was found. It measured 4.56 X 1.71 X 0.75 cm and weighed 6.74 g. (see Figs. 34A-B, p. 66) Levels and photos of this artifact were taken as revealed in situ. The top of hole was found at a level of 596.946 m. asl. and the location of the metal fragment was 596.897 m. asl. The metal is made of either bronze or tin. There was a crease in the metal that was the result of a shovel strike during excavations.

Eventually, the borders of Locus 223 were expanded westward and combined and brought down to the level of L-222 at its northern boundary. The ash layer continued throughout this area with uncertainty as to its source and purpose. However, as mentioned above, the lack of the presence of large amounts of pottery at these level within the ash layer seems to rule out a large conflagration at this location and more toward an interpretation of trash burning, or food preparation, although the lack of a significant number of bones causes problems for the latter interpretation. Another possible interpretation is that the locations south of the structure were utilized as a source for ash used as fill for the bricks found in the cemetery in the graves of the deceased, though this is merely speculative as the bricks have not be analyzed to determine if the gray brick contain ash and ash as a source could come from almost any location.

Locus 253
Path/Wall (?)

This locus designated what was interpreted to be a wall or possible path leading to an entrance on the south side of the structure (funerary chapel) of Unit 12. Immediately to the west of this path and near the south wall (L-247) of the structure, metal detection received a strong signal.

The area was lowered with shovels and trowels to both obtain information about the detection as well as see if L-253 could be interpreted as either a path or wall. Eventually, large, corroded iron cauldron fragments (8 total) were discovered. One fragment contained a nob-handle. The cauldron was designated a special find with photographs taken in situ and a level as recorded by the total station measured 596.992. m. asl. It lay 80 cm west of the path/wall (L-253 itself) and 310 cm south of the southern wall L-247 (See Cultural Materials Analysis section, p. 67-68).

An attempt was then made to discern the extension of the wall/path feature of L-253 seeking to trace it in a southerly direction from the structure in U-12. An area of hard soil was found just 50 cm north of the border of U-13, but it was difficult to determine if this hardened soil was due to the bulldozer used to clear this section in 2017 since it was located just to the northeast of the northeastern corner of the old Unit-1-2017. The presence of mudbrick could not be ruled out, but the path did not appear to extend south as previously thought. Instead, this could merely have marked an entrance with the bricks closer to the threshold of the entrance.

A significant amount of pottery was found in this area, but the section of wall/path appeared to be cut by a plow during the Soviet period. Further examination of the plow path revealed that significant damage to several parts of the structure in U-12 due to the plow could be discerned and shows that excavations have likely reached the lowest possible level of the structure in the soil.

Further south of the wall/path in the direction that it should have probably extended there are slight traces in the soil, but no discernable mud blocks/bricks. However, several gravel-sized stones in the soil along with pottery seem to indicate this material settled next to a structure/wall near the site of where the wall/path may have extended. Pottery sherds in this location also contain small, hairlike white roots on the sherds which indicates that they rested on top of organic material, thus providing a clue as to the level of cultural occupation at a specific period.

It is evident that the original topography of the overall area in both Units 12 and 13 had a gradual downward slope in an east-to-west direction. This means that possibly more soil (probably up to 10 cm) needs to be cleared to expose the entire cultural layer(s) across Unit-12. This will need to be undertaken during future excavations.

Locus 283
Ash layer level

This locus designated the ash layer that descended into a pit which cut below L-222 and L- 223 in Unit 12. The boundaries of these two loci were eventually combined when it was discovered that the ash fill extended across these two loci and beyond at approximately 5 cm below the cleared surface of L-212 in U-12 to a depth usually between 5 to 30 cm.
The ash layer (L-283) descended into two shallow pits that cut below L-222, the first measured 80 x 185 x 27 cm and the second smaller pit which lay due south of the first measured 70 x 70 x 15 cm. The bottom of this ashy layer which incorporated most of L-222/223 and even extended south into L-265 (U-13) was reached in a range from 5 to 15 cm below the cleared surface.

If graveside funerary meals did occur (as has been suggested in previous reports) the presence of animal bone and cookware along with small ash pits found in U-13 cannot be discarded out of hand. Such meals could have been prepared at home prior to arrival or might have been a token amount of food more symbolic than meant to be an extensive meal. The larger burn pits, such as those in L-222/223 and L-265 do not appear to have been used for such meal preparation.

Closing Levels of L-283 (ash fill of L-222/223) were as follows: C: 596.849 m. asl.; E:
597.061 m. asl.; W: 597.068 m. asl. In addition, closing level of second pit in the southern part of L-283 measured as follows: C: 596.998 m asl.; E: 597.061 m asl.; W: 597.068 m asl.

Unit 13

This excavation unit was delineated as a 21(E/W) x 10 (N/S) m unit due south of Unit 12 incorporating an area of 210 m2. This unit included the southernmost part of Area C as first identified in 2017. The first 10 to 15 cm of topsoil here was cleared at that time, but later backfilled. In that season an excavation unit (at the time, labeled Unit 1 now with designation U-1-2017) was also dug which revealed along with some of the standard cultural material of pottery and animal bones, a stone with a series of pick marks. At the time it was uncertain if this stone was a kayrak (gravestone; ID: Ib_17_IV_В_3_I009; see 2017 Field Report, p. 158). While this is still speculative, this stone was probably associated with the funerary context.

Because the topsoil in this section was removed during excavations in 2017, the artifacts from the top area of cleared soil cannot be considered as diagnostic for the location. The eventual depth that proceeded from 20-50 cm below the surface, can then be considered as artifacts in situ, except for the excavation unit itself that was dug in 2017, identified during the current excavations.

Opening photos of the designated U-13 were taken. Levels with the total station were taken which were the opening levels for L-262 which identified the topsoil and probable backfill. This demonstrates that the occupational surface is likely to reside about 50 cm below the current surface. It also demonstrates that the graves discovered were not very deep below the occupational surface, yet deep enough to allude excavators in 2017 (see discussion in 2020 Field Report, p.74- 76). In addition, the units dug in Area C during the 2017 season are now known to have been in locations which we can now definitively say are not within the boundaries of the cemetery.

Locus 262
Level

The initial levels taken of U-13/L-262 measured as follows: NE: 597.951 m. asl; SE: 597.624
m. asl.; SW: 597.407 m. asl. NW: 597.396 m. asl. C: 597.577 m. asl. Excavations proceeded into U-13/L-262 with the removal of the topsoil layer with shovels. As referenced above, the topsoil in this area was previously removed to approximately 15 - 20 cm below the modern daylight surface in 2017.

A gradual lowering in 2-3 cm intervals followed the initial removal of the topsoil continuing in a west-to-east direction across the entire unit. The goal was to discern any cultural features in the soil. Occasional pottery sherds (common ware) were found along with a smattering of sheep bones, sometimes in concentrated clusters. Clearing revealed a rather significant amount of fired brick (a total of 40 fragments of substantial size) scattered throughout this locus layer. Again, this locus is from previous backfill, so the in situ location of these brick fragments could not be substantiated.

In the NW corner of U-13/L-262 an area of red calcination from either burning or deteriorated pottery or fired brick was noted. Dark black soil was also noted as this may be ash. The area was left for later investigation and loci were assigned (L-265). In the same area, a pottery spray was revealed of a possible jug/storage jar. Other pottery fragments were found in the same area which was very close to a tree. The spray lay 95 cm to the east of the western baulk and 120 cm south of the northern boundary of the unit. A locus was also opened at this location (L-264).

Pottery continued to be removed from the soil, a larger amount seemed to come from the northwest side near the aforementioned tree. It could be that this soil was undisturbed in 2017 due to its proximity to the tree.

A small piece of charcoal was found in the north-central section of the unit. The soil in line with the possible path identified as L-253 extending south perpendicular to the structure was harder in this section. Eventually, excavators intersected with a unit dug in 2017 (Unit 1-2017, originally a 10 x 10 m unit, see Field Report, pp. 106-108).

As clearing continued in the south-central section of U-13/L-262, a glass paste bead was found in the soil. This was classified as a special find and photographs were taken in situ at a level of 597.162 m asl. (Ib_21_C_IV_262_I002; see Cultural Material section, p. 65, Fig. 33) The bead was white with blue specks, indicating that at one time the bead was colored completely blue, but the glaze had worn off. It was triangular with descending sides culminating in a terminal point.

Locus 263
Kayrak (gravestone)

While digging in the northeast sector of U-13, a gravestone (kayrak) was found. It measured
10.6 x 12 x 3.5 cm. It is reddish-brown in color and rounded in shape with the lower section cut just below the fully inscribed cross. There is no other inscription on the stone, which is probably an igneous rock.

The inscribed cross is completely visible. The top of the cross and the right and left arms are flared on their terminal ends. The bottom crossbar appears to narrow into a point representing a tang or a processional cross, or possibly what is known as a “cross fitchy.” (See Cultural Materials Analysis section, Figs. 4, 5, p. 45-47). The cross measures 8.6 x 7.6 cm. It was chiseled to a depth on the stone of 2 mm. On the lower right-hand side of the stone there appears to be a light-brown circular mineral deposit within the stone. The back of the stone is smooth and has three gashes in the rock, possibly because of agricultural or previous archaeological equipment hitting the stone.

Because this area was exposed in 2017 and then backfilled, this stone’s in situ location or even its location following previous agricultural disturbance cannot be determined. No grave could be discerned in association with the stone and now given the known context based on current excavations this location seems to have no graves. Total station measurements and photographs were taken. The stone’s discovered depth measured 597.586 m. asl. with coordinates 44T 410206 UTM.

Locus 264
Pottery spray

Across the L-262 level, pottery continued to be removed from the soil with a larger amount coming from the northwest side of U-13 near a tree. It could be that this soil was undisturbed in 2017 due to its proximity to the tree.

This pottery spray was opened as a new locus (L-264) due to its association with the areas of burning, originally perceived to be midden pit (L-222 and L-223) and also near to the soil discoloration in what would become L-265. Photographs were taken and a level from the total station measured 597.195 m. asl.

A significant portion of this area in and around both L-265 and L-264 seemed to contain burn pits and cultural material including pottery and animal bone. No other discernable features were distinguished. This locus appears in association with L-265, L-222, and L-223 as all part of one area of consistent burning activity and possible trash disposal, with more ash than pottery or bone. However, this locus, situated farther west/southwest of the other loci, contained more pottery than ash. This may be due to pottery in (L-222/L-223) had also been found at higher levels in 2020, with ash fill more predominate underneath the pottery waste.

As the locus was excavated, the initial pottery spray was removed. A small cluster of stones were discovered underneath along with an almost whole fired brick yet cracked and fractured throughout. Finger marks are seen in the plaster cement which demonstrates that the brick was probably used in construction and later utilized for a secondary purpose or intended for such. Examples of these types of fired bricks have been found as coverings for graves in the cemetery, usually of Type 2C-b discovered in previous seasons (see 2019 report, p. 230-31). The largest portion of the brick that remained and as discovered measured approximately 10 x 10 x 6.5 cm. Following the clearing of all cultural materials, final measurements and photographs were taken and the locus was closed. The dimensions of the locus measured 110 N/S x 80 E/W cm. The lowest level of the cultural material where the brick lay was 596.831 m. asl. No other features or cultural material were discovered underneath this brick.

Locus 265
Calcination spot (area of burning)

Following the 5 cm leveling of U-13/L-262, and employing a mechanical blower to clear the dust, the discolored area near L-264 displayed possible boundaries of a midden as a circular feature in the soil in the northwestern side of the unit and just southwest of L-222/223 and the structure of U-12. This locus was opened as L-265. Photos and total station levels were taken from the cleared surface of L-262 which revealed L-265 and measured 597.198 m. asl. It was characterized by a red calcinated spot which measured approximately 80 cm in length N/S and was lowered by 5-10cm and expanded to the northwest. The fill contained ashy soil, in other areas were charcoal flecks and various dark spots of ash concentrations.

Excavators sought to determine its relationship to what were thought to be the possible middens L-222 and L-223, but turned out more to be areas of burning, as opposed to middens, at least at these levels. As the excavations progressed it appeared that most of the area in and around L-265 and L-264 contained shallow burn pits with significant amounts of pottery and animal bone. No other discernable features were distinguished in the soil. The initial clearing, which lowered the soil by 2-3 cm, yielded a significant amount of pottery along with the calcinated soil mixed with ash. A few animal bones and pottery fragments were found in the ash fill itself, but most of the pottery was in the upper levels, not in the ash.

After lowering by an additional 5-7 cm, the soil appeared to be like the other nearby loci (L- 222/223/164). The soil was a very dark fill (ash and organic root material). The ash layer was about 10 cm deep in the lowest section of the locus. Almost all the cultural material found was outside this area. The final clearing revealed an amorphous shape in the soil that measured: 308 (N/S) x 209 (E/W) x 15 cm in depth. The calcination spot was still visible in the SW corner of the locus. Final photos and levels were taken. Northern edge: 597.055 m. asl.; Center: 597.040 m. asl. Southern edge: 597.108 m. asl. Eastern edge: 597.156 m. asl.; Western edge: 597.063 m. asl.

Locus 267
Level

Following the initial pass with shovels to lower the soil of U-13/L-262, it was then determined to open a new locus after clearing to the 10-15 cm below-the-surface level of L-262. Locus 267 was opened as the new level to distinguish between the cultural material of the upper level which was predominately from backfill and the cultural level that was found below the backfill and not touched from the excavations of the 2017 Unit 1-2017.

Measurements were taken of the exposed southwestern side and central levels of U-13. The eastern and northern sections remained at the previous level’s depths until later clearing. From this point forward, all cultural material was classified as coming from the actual cultural level of occupation. Southwest corner: 597.166 m asl. South-central section: 597.192 m. asl.

In the southwest corner of U-13, larger amounts of pottery and animal bone were found in this L-267 level. An area of hardened soil in this corner was eventually discerned because of moisture from vegetal roots, as opposed to a feature of any sort. During continued lowering of the soil, pottery, bone, ash and burn spots were revealed. One small pot handle with a rim was discovered along with other pottery fragments as this also was thought to be a possible midden pit to be examined following more cleaning of the soil. Four metal fragments were found at the L-267 level in the SW corner. The largest fragment was approximately 46 mm x 32 mm x 18 mm and weighed 72.6 g. The metal appeared to be iron, was highly corroded and its identity and function were indiscernible as with the other pieces.

In this same section, while clearing in the cultural layer L-267, certain common ware pottery appeared to be in a cruder condition. Some fragments were not wheel-spun pottery and were hand molded. The inclusions were quite visible, and the fabric was not well variegated.

Following mechanical blowing of the site to remove the remaining dust and clearing to discern possible features in the soil; features that were visible in the soil at this L-267 level were noted and loci assigned (see loci descriptions L-270 – 275). In the southern baulk of U-13, three discernible layers were visible, the topsoil/backfill; the impacted soil exposed in 2017, and the cultural layer which was designated as L-267.

At this stage, no further leveling was made for the overall layer of L-267 other than the individual loci mentioned. Clearly, the significant amount of cultural material revealed across this large area demonstrates occupation and activity concurrent with the structure of U-12 as well as the cemetery in its entirety. No structural features were discerned at this level or within the entirety of U-13, however, several areas of burning and shallow pits were found. Closing levels were taken along with ground level and drone photographs: SW 597.401 m. asl.; NW 597.138 m. asl.; NE: 597.582 m. asl; SE: 597.226 m. asl; C: 597.039 m. asl.

Locus 270
Burn pit/Hearth (?)

Following final clearing of U-13/L-267, an area of dark soil and mixed with ash was discerned in the east-central section of U-13. The opening level of the locus was 497.144 m. asl. with approximate dimensions of 70 (E/W) x 138 (N/S) cm. The dark feature in the soil was brown in color (Munsell: 7.5 YR 4/2)

Excavations began around the area of the darkened soil which maintained its shape and color after an initial 2-3 cm sweep with a hand trowel. While clearing over the dark spot in the soil, a coin with very defined edges was found in situ. The coin was dark with greenish-black patina and measured 10 mm in diameter. It was classified as a special find and photographed in situ and levels were taken: 597.102 m. asl. This coin appears to be contemporary with the structure in U-12 and the whole site in general. Upon later cleaning and examination, it was determined that the coin was readable and provided a terminus post quem of 1310 A.D. (ID: Ib_21_C_IV_270-I001, See Cultural Materials Analysis section, Figs. 19, 20, pp. 55-58).

The fill in this locus included light-gray and dark black ash. Occasional pottery and animal bones were also found. No other coins were found. The area was also filled with roots, indicating the presence of possible moisture or fertile soil. It appeared this was a burn pit that was dug below the occupational layer (L-267) and had an amorphous shape. The final clearing revealed dimensions of 90 N/S x 65 E/W x 9 cm deep. The cleared pit was photographed, and levels taken with a total station: N: 597.059 m. asl. C: 597.059 m. asl; S: 597.109 m. asl.

Locus 271
Midden

This locus was identified as a possible midden containing inclusions of stones and pottery fragments. The initial level was measured at 597.013 m. asl. with approximate dimensions of 187 N/S x 120 E/W cm.

From the cleared surface of L-267, this locus had two stones which were visible along with a small amount of ash and ashy soil along with some pottery fragments and one animal bone. The area was lowered with trowels by 5-7 cm below the cleared surface. Once the base of the shallow pit was reached, no other cultural material or features were seen in the soil. Photos were taken. Following photos, the cobble-sized white granite stones were pulled and inspected for any inscriptions; none were present. Under one stone was some ash and one small, glazed potsherd was found. The stones measured 23 x 25 x 10 cm and 12 x 10 x 5 cm. The closing levels for L- 271 were as follows: N: 596.969 m. asl; C: 596.952 m. asl; S: 597.013 m. asl.

Locus 272
Burn pit/hearth?

This locus was identified as a small pit in the cleared level of L-267, and was characterized by the appearance of ash, ashy soil, and small fragments of charcoal along with burned bone and calcinated soil. The pit’s fill was brown (Munsell: 7.5 YR 5/2) and measured at a level of 596.999 m. asl. The approximate dimensions as seen in the soil was 59 (N/S) x 47 (E/W) cm.

This circular feature lay due south of L-273 but appeared to possibly have two mud bricks which created a type of boundary for the pit. Under the first 4 cm of ash, calcinated spots appeared along with charcoal fragments. The ash was gray (Munsell: 7.5 YR 5/1). The soil was saved for flotation samples. The bottom of the pit was reached after lowering the soil by 5-7 cm. The soil fill was mostly ashy soil with a few small, charred bones and very worn pottery fragments.

The final measurement of the feature following clearing was 55 (N/S) x 34 E/W x 7 (depth) cm. Closing photos were taken and measurements with a total station were as follows: N: 596.969 m asl; S: 597.061 m asl.

Locus 273
Area of cultural material/Sondage

This feature originally was thought to be a possible midden with a mixture of pottery fragments and animal bones visible on the cleared surface of L-267. The boundaries of the feature with an amorphous, circular shape measured 153 x 165 cm. The level of the locus measured as follows based on the cleared level of L-267: SW: 597.192 m. asl.; NW: 597.192 m. asl.; NE:
597.147 m. asl.; SE: 597.103 m. asl.

Due south of this locus was L-272 which was a probably a burn pit/hearth possibly in association with L-273. This locus also lay to the southeast of the middens/areas of burning of L- 222/223 in U-12 and L-265 in U-13. This locus is also 7.6 m south of the structure in U-12.

The feature was lowered with shovels by 5-7 cm. No discernable pit boundaries were discovered; however, a significant number of animal bones and pottery were found including a large sidewall of a vessel in the southwest corner. An additional pass was made lowering the area by 10-15 cm with similar results. Various places in the soil contained a smattering of charcoal and calcinated spots in the soil. The southern area of the locus had harder soil, particularly near L-272 (burn pit/hearth).

A soil differentiation showed a possible line in the soil; however, no pit was discerned. Cultural material became less frequent yet continued. Another pass of 5 cm was made to determine if the line seen in soil continued, but subsequently proved to be a root and thus the “line” disappeared. The fill continued to be intermixed with charcoal, calcination spots, and a darker brown soil intermixed with clay with the same consistency of what was dubbed the “detrital layer” from the 2019 excavations. This may possibly have been formed by organic material that was uniform across Area C at some point.

Following an additional pass with shovels to a depth of an additional 15 cm, levels and photos were taken: SW 596.987 m. asl.; NW 597.005 m. asl.; NE 596.963 m. asl. SE 596.963 m.asl.; C 596.974 m. asl. It was thought at this level, cultural material found below this mark is probably from a time prior to the interments of Area C, as most of the graves do not extend below the 596.95 mark. This, of course, needs to be interpreted in light natural undulations of the terrain.

Although no intentionally dug midden pit was discerned, it seems evident that this area was a place of burning and waste disposal. It was decided to continue to lower this area’s soil until reaching the sterile layer, thus acting as a type of sondage.

The soil was then lowered in 5 cm intervals. Pottery and bone continued to be revealed. More charcoal and pea-sized gravel was also present as was the hardened, crumbly particles of the “detrital soil.” Continued passes ensued with some large pieces of pottery emerging with occasional charcoal. One large animal bone (probably cow) was also revealed.

At approximately 30 cm below the cleared surface (of L-267), a small amount of cultural material continued to be found, lowering proceeded at 10 cm intervals. Some of the pottery at this depth appeared to possibly be older based on both form and fabric, but further investigation will be needed to make this determination. (see Locus 273 Sondage Analysis, pp. 71-73). The locus revealed the sparce, yet steady, presence of cultural material and activity as evidenced by pottery, bone, and calcination. As the locus was lowered, the baulks became more discernable. Within the northern and western baulks, the “brown detrital” layer, which has been common throughout Areas B and C at specific levels, was clearly revealed. This “detrital layer” is a 1-to-3-centimeter layer that is indicative of some possibly previous organic surface material or perhaps flooding or a period of abandonment. It is seen in many of the graves of IB, with bodies often found at or near this soil differentiation. In 2017, this layer “tricked” our archaeologists in Area B into thinking that the final sterile level had been reached. The excavations in Area B, Unit 6 demonstrated that an earlier phase of occupation was seen below this “detrital layer” (see 2020 Field Report, pp. 31-39). Locus 273 also seems to verify this result now in Area C.

As excavations continued, at a depth of 596.685 m. asl., a potsherd was found that had stamped impressions with two designs probably made by a rolling method. One had a quatrefoil or rosette design and the other one piriform with a circle inside the bottom middle part of a “pear- shaped” design. Between the different shapes are three rivets (conical shaped adhesions). It contained a gray fabric with no slip. Given the current context the symbols on this pottery may have contained Christian symbolism. This was declared a special find. Photos were taken in situ. (ID: Ib_21_C_IV_273_I001; See Cultural Materials Analysis section, pp. 60-62).

In L-273, at 40 cm below the cleared surface of L-267, fragments from a green glazed oil lamp were found, these fragments were bagged and labeled (no thumb guard was found with these fragments). In addition, fragments of pottery containing an orange-colored “drip” slip were found.

Once this 40 cm below the cleared surface mark was reached the amount of cultural material became more sparce, however, it did continue. The soil also appeared to darken in color slightly. Occasional ash and charcoal flecks continued to appear in the soil.

At the 50-60 cm below the cleared level (L-267) a small amount of pottery, ash, and animal bones continued to be discovered in the fill. The same result continued until the 85 cm level below the cleared L-267 surface, at which point the sterile layer was reached. Closing photographs and levels were then taken. The baulks of the sondage were drawn to study the cultural layers.

Two layers of occupation were discerned with the so-called “detrital layer” making a possible period of demarcation. Most of the cultural material was found in the upper layer which appears contemporary with the possible period of the structure in U-12 is from this upper layer (yet, below the topsoil and the layer of clearing from 2017). This layer above the “detrital layer” seems to indicate the activity of the life of the cemetery and structure. Cuts in the soil, particularly in the southern baulk indicate the burning and other activities discovered throughout U-13, particularly in the southwest sector of the unit.

The terminal depth of sondage marking the sterile layer measured as follows: SW: 596.337 m. asl.; NW: 596.338 m. asl.; NE: 596.353 m. asl.; SE: 596.371 m. asl.; C: 596.308 m. asl.

Locus 274
Area of cultural material

Following the clearing of U-13/L-267, what was considered a possible midden pit was identified in the soil in the far western end of the unit. It appeared as an elongated oval in a west- to-east direction extending into the western baulk of U-13. It contained ashy soil and scattered pottery was visible on surface and measured at a level of 596.998 m. asl. Its approximate dimensions as seen from the surface measured 169 E/S x 82 N/S cm. The soil fill was brown (Munsell: 7.5 YR 5/3). Due to its west/east orientation in the soil it was also considered to be a possible grave since this directional orientation is characteristic of the graves in the nearby cemetery.

Excavations proceeded with hand trowels and shovels. As expected, several pottery fragments, including those that were visible from the cleared surface, were found during an initial 3-5 cm lowering. Small amounts of pea-sized gravel were also found in the soil. The area was lowered down to approximately 7-10 cm below the cleared surface of L-267. Below this initial pottery layer was no further cultural material, no ash, and no feature appeared in the western baulk of U-13 which this locus lay immediately beside. At this 10 cm level below the surface, the characteristic dark brown crumbly soil of the so-called “detrital layer” was found. The final cleared area measured 80 x 200 x 10 cm. Closing photos were taken and levels measured: W: 596.927 m. asl., C: 596.929 m. asl., E: 596.953 m. asl.

Locus 275
Midden/Area of burning

This locus was identified following the clearing of U-13/L-267 in the central section of U-13. From the cleared surface, it appeared as a possible midden with a fired brick on the northern edge of the possible pit. The opening level measured 497.021 m. asl. with its approximate dimensions 52 E/W x 131 N/S cm.

Ashy soil with calcination spots were seen both from the surface. Once excavations began, the fill yielded only a small amount of pottery. In the north side near the fired brick in the fill and underneath the brick, animal bone was found including a sheep’s mandible.

The extended area seen from the surface appeared to contain at least 2 smaller burn pits that were dug into the soil. Sheep bones in this instance seems to suggest cooking in this area contemporary with the structure in U-12. The pits did not proceed very deep going no more than 10 cm below the cleared surface. Closing photographs and levels were taken: N: 596.883 m. asl.; C: 596.970 m. asl; Edge of southern pit: 596.915 m. asl; S: 596.980 m. asl.

Unit 14

The decision was made to open a new 12 (E/W) x 11 (N/S) m unit (Unit 14) to the west of U-9A (which itself incorporated U-6 and U-1 from 2018 dig) for the purpose of determining the extent of the cemetery’s western boundary. Based on both previous and current excavations in Area C, the cemetery’s southern boundary seems clarified (see Conclusion, pp. 95-97); however, the western boundary for burials remained unclear. Excavations in 2017 cleared topsoil in this section, except for the far northwest section of the newly designated unit. This incorporates soil from about 1 to 1.5 meters to the northwest.

Unit 14’s eastern boundary somewhat overlapped with the western boundary of U-9A by 1 to 1.5 m due to the re-accumulation of soil and backfill coverage that obscured the previous excavation boundaries. Eventually, the previously identified infant graves of Loci 161 and 162 of U-9A were revealed. These were discernable based on the evidence of their skulls as seen in the soil along with the presence of mudbrick along with the Geotech fabric that covered these graves.

U-14 also lay due south by approximately 25 m from what was dubbed Unit 3 of Area C in 2017. The three excavation units’ designation in Area C from 2017 were not carried forward in 2018 due to human error and since no major features or graves were discovered at that time, but are now designated Unit 1-2017, Unit 2-2017, and Unit 3-2017. It should also be noted that Unit 10, a long test trench excavated in 2019 which sought to discern the cemetery’s southern boundary intersected U-14 on its southern boundary and was clearly discerned in the soil. This two-meter- wide trench began 3 meters to the west of the designated eastern boundary of U-14. In addition, L-205 (described below) which was a grave that lay at the mouth of U-10, was also once again revealed, and excavated.

The soil and terrain of this unit is characteristic of the rest of Area C. As the loci descriptions below indicate, graves were discovered in U-14 and the western boundary of the cemetery was slightly extended in that direction, yet, even more significantly, the boundary was clearly discerned.

Five graves were fully excavated in U-14, two adults and three children of which two were infants. However, 5 additional infant-sized skulls were revealed in the soil and assigned loci numbers. These small graves remained unexcavated. It does appear that this part of the cemetery contained a higher percentage of infant/juvenile burials, particularly when incorporating loci 161/162 from U-9A which are in the same vicinity as these other infant burials. The graves in U- 14 also experienced more soil disturbance than those compared with the interments of U-7 and U- 3 of Area C due to agricultural activity.

In the eastern half of the unit, specifically 5 meters from the western baulk, no graves were found. In addition, the soil was harder and yielded more pottery and animal bone. In fact, the amount of cultural material discovered along with the large amount of animal bone, included butchered bone, suggest that this location might have been a spot of food preparation, although it could merely be indicative of it having never been previously exposed.

Locus 205
Grave

Locus 205 lay at the mouth of Unit 10, the 45 (N/S) x 2 E/W) meter-long test trench dug in 2019 used to determine the cemetery’s southern boundary. Previous loci from 2019 were also unearthed in the vicinity (L-162/L-163).

Further examination of L-205 proceeded. The Geotech fabric that had been placed over the remains in 2019 was removed and the remains of a human foot were seen intact in the soil. Mudbrick was seen to the west that may be associated with this grave. More mudbrick further west almost on the same line was also noted. In an area north of L-205 a fragment from a disarticulated mandible was found which may or may not have been associated with the grave.

Excavations began in the locus near the revealed foot bones. A second foot to the north was discovered along with the lower legs (tibia and fibula), however, almost the entire rest of the body was missing from the middle of the tibiae and fibulae upward. This indicates major grave disturbance likely during the Soviet period of agriculture, but damage could have also occurred during the initial clearing for the topsoil during 2017 excavations. The feet and leg orientation do demonstrate the body was in a supine position at the time of interment with a west-to-east orientation.

Almost no remaining bones above the lower legs associated with this body were discovered. However, a disarticulated adult-sized metatarsal (?) was discovered in the soil fill to the west from the probable grave pit of L-205. This bone was from an adult body, however, whereas the feet and lower leg bones of L-205 appear to come from that of a child. The soil was lowered further the west with no further remains discovered. The soil was retained for carpology flotation.

Final clearing of the area of around the probable grave, a child-sized mandible was found with one intact deciduous tooth as well as one rib and three vertebrae on the west side of the grave. These remains, if in association with the leg and feet bones to the east along with the size of the body’s feet, possibly indicate a child over 3 years of age, but this remains speculative. A small right scapula was also found. Additionally, during this final clearing stage, an adult-sized tooth was found in the soil as well. This tooth appeared to be an upper front incisor which also had shoveling. Overall, this grave had been highly disturbed, and another grave appeared to have been in proximity. A small stone was also found in the location of where the body was interred.

Final photographs were taken along with closing levels with the total station: Feet: 597.306
m. asl.; Center: 597.206 m. asl.; East (estimated location of head): 597.270 m. asl.

Locus 266
Level

This locus designated the initial level for Unit 14. The four cardinal points of the unit were measured which marks the opening levels for this locus: SW: 597.378 m. asl; NW: 597.648 m. asl; NE: 597.318 m. asl.; SE: 597.286 m. asl. (at base of U-9A baulk); 597.812 m. asl. (current topsoil level of U-14); Center: 597.668 m. asl.

Operations began in U-14/L-266 with the purpose of clearing the area west of U-9A to discern if graves lay west of previous loci identified in 2018-19 and to determine if the western boundary of the cemetery could be located.

This level also initially was part of the backfill from the mechanical clearing of Area C in 2017. However, in the southeast side of the unit the soil yielded more pottery than the rest of the unit during the initial passed utilizing shovels (eventually designated L-294) In the baulk in the southern sector of the unit the topsoil clearing from that year is visible as well as the soil fill from the previous cemetery/cultural layer. Leveling below the previously cleared topsoil occurred during this first pass, which averaged a depth of approximately 40 cm below the topsoil.

The clearing process began on the southern and northern sides of the unit simultaneously. The soil on the southern side of the unit was harder. Eventually, the grave identified in 2019 (L- 205, see above) which appeared to be a child’s grave, was again revealed approximately 1 meter to the north of the entrance of test trench (U-10) that was excavated in 2019. The workers on the north side, due to softer soil, cut into the unit at a slightly deeper level.

As clearing continued in U-14/L-266, in the south-central section, a small-glazed pottery fragment containing a design or writing in a dark color was revealed. The fragment was part of a rim with a transparent glaze over a white slip and with inscribed black lines which were either decorative or possibly letters from a small bowl. This potsherd was designated a special find and a measurement using a total station was taken of 597.377 m. asl. (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I001). Photographs of the find were taken in situ.

Shortly thereafter, in the central section of U-14/L-266, another potsherd from a piece of fine ware was discovered. This cyan blue piece of pottery with a decorative design on the front side is either from the same or a similar dish found in Unit-12 in 2020 (See 2020 Field Report, pp. 69, 173-177). This is either a form of porcelain or other type of celadon fine ware, possibly from Iran or Syria. The fragment was designated as a special find and measured at a level of 597.361 m. asl. (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002) Photographs were taken in situ. (See Cultural Material Analysis section, pp. 58-60).

In this same general area, another potsherd was found with a gray fabric containing two rows of impressed snowflakes (stars) below 2 horizontal impressed lines (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I003). It measured at a level of 597.266 m. asl. Photos of the find were taken in situ.

Three days later, in the west-central section another piece of the cyan blue fine ware was discovered (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I004). This fragment was a part of the base (ring base) but contained the exquisite engravings on the cyan-blue glazed background with very fine, almost porcelain-like (celadon?), fabric in the cross-section. The ring base was unglazed. This fragment is from the same vessel as fragments found near the funerary chapel in 2020 as noted above (see Cultural Material Analysis section, Fig. 24, p. 60). It was discovered at the 597.531 m. asl. level and photographed in situ.

In the NE sector of U-14/L-266, a fully intact human cranium was exposed in connection with a grave. The excavations in this part of the unit were at a lower depth than in the southern section due to the softer soil which made penetration with a shovel easier. The skull was found as the excavator swept in an eastwardly direction. Further lowering of the soil to the south and north of the skull and slightly to the east revealed a line of gray bricks parallel to the area of the grave which had a west-to-east orientation. A new locus (L-268) was opened.

Lowering of the unit revealed both sheep, cow, and horse bones in L-266. While lowering the overall level in this area northwest of L-277, two disarticulated human phalanges (toes?) were found. A new locus was opened, L-288. An attempt to find a grave pit in association with these disarticulated bones proved unsuccessful. Photos were taken and a level measured with total station: 597.143 m. asl.

Locus 268
Grave

In the northeast sector of U-14, while clearing the soil in the fill of the L-266 level, a fully intact human skull was exposed in connection with a grave. The skull was found as the excavator swept in an eastwardly direction. Further clearing to the south and north of the skull and slightly to the east revealed a line of gray-colored mudbricks parallel to the area of the suspected grave pit which had a west-to-east orientation.

The locus was opened for this grave, which initially was thought to be the skull of a small child. However, as excavations continued, it was evident that it was an adult skull. Photographs and levels for the skull and four corners of the revealed grave feature were taken: Head: 597.321 m. asl.; NW: 597.354 m. asl.; NE: 597.296 m. asl.; SW: 597.331 m. asl.; SE: 597.288 m. asl.

At least one pottery sherd could be seen on the surface in the center section of the grave. The upper pelvic bone was slightly sliced by a shovel during excavations, these bone fragments were bagged and assigned to the locus. In addition, what appeared to be part of the right tibia was slightly exposed in the soil.

The grave as measured from the cranium was 120 cm south of the northern baulk and 220 cm west of the eastern boundary of U-14. This locus slightly straddled the western border of U- 9A and the eastern border of U-14.

As excavations progressed the grave appeared to be that of an elderly female. The grave apparently was disturbed since the scapula and clavicle were pushed upward and to the north. The entire skull also appeared to have been displaced as the mandible was askance to the north away from the rest of the skull. The teeth as they were revealed appeared very worn with some probably missing at the time of interment. A portion of the pelvis appeared to also have been disturbed.

Photographs were taken of the mudbrick that lay parallel on the northern and southern sides of the grave pit. Also, another brick appeared to have been placed horizontally across the lower part of the skull, yet as in other instances within the cemetery, the head was not completely covered by a brick. Following photographs, these bricks were removed to gain better access to the remains in the grave which were carefully excavated utilizing brushes and dental tools. Once the remains of the thoracic area were exposed, pottery and animal bones were seen resting on the chest. This is now interpreted as coming from the fill of the ash-colored mudbricks used to cover the tomb. This was further verified by the presence of such temper fill found in the bricks themselves. Sheep bones and charcoal fragments were also detected between the legs.

The arms of the female in grave appeared to have been folded at a right, 90-degree angle across the waist. This was difficult to discern because to that point only the left forearm was visible. Additionally, only the right metacarpal of the hand was visible on the left side of the body which inferred that both arms were folded across the upper pelvic region. The left femur was completely missing. The right femur appeared to have significant “bowing” as shown by the outward curvature of the bone.

Following the initial clearing of the skeleton, an attempt was made to locate the left humerus which had shifted under the left side of the body which was eventually exposed. This shifting of the body to the left provided further evidence for grave disturbance, again, due to previous agricultural activity.

The fill at the site of where the left elbow probably rested contained a pottery sherd. Three small stones, two on the right side (one near the skull and the other near the pelvic region) and one on the left side of the torso were also found.

Analysis of the teeth and cranial features was performed by Dr. Byung Yeon Lee (See Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 83-85). Once the skeleton was fully exposed, total station levels were taken: Base of skull: 597.231 m. asl.; top of skull: 597.331 m. asl.; center (coccyx): 597.216 m. asl.; feet: 597.286 m. asl.

Interestingly, the feet in this case were higher in the grave than the mid-section. There did appear to be a soil pillow behind the neck, but not necessarily behind the head. Just prior to removal of the skull, an earring (copper) was discovered just under the skull at the location of the left temporal lobe and mastoid process (Ib_21_C_IV_268_I001). This grave good was photographed in situ. It appeared to be a simple loop with no accompanying ornamentation. This seemed to confirm that such loops found in other soil fill in graves (though not detected on the bodies) were simple earrings as opposed to the idea that perhaps the loops were part of a pendant necklace, as previously thought.

Following final photographs, all the skeletal remains were exhumed, wrapped in foil, labeled, and boxed for laboratory analysis. The area of the grave following the removal of the remains was scanned with a metal detector to see if the possible second earring could be found. Nothing was detected. Soil samples were also taken around the abdomen and cranial areas. Final levels of the grave pit were as follows: W: 597.149 m. asl.; C: 597.105 m. asl.; E: 597.108 m. asl.

Locus 269
Grave

In U-14/L-266, while the work crew was clearing in the northwest sector of the unit 1.35 m south of L-268 (grave) an infant’s skull was discovered. The excavators unintentionally destroyed most of the skull while clearing the soil. Additionally, the entire unit’s soil had been disturbed from the 2017 excavations which could have also played a role in the disturbance of the grave since the bones were extremely scattered within the grave.

This locus was opened designating the grave. It lay at a higher level than the grave of L-268, but almost parallel with it. Although most of the child’s body was disturbed the back of the skull remained intact in the grave thus indicating that the child was interred in the typical west-to-east fashion. Initial photos of the revealed remains were taken and the level of the skull measured 597.452 m. asl.

The soil from the area was sifted for any disarticulated bones. Once sifted, the soil was preserved as samples for carpological analysis.

One femur and a possible tibia along with a few other bone fragments remained intact in the grave. The skull was shattered into several pieces due to being struck by a shovel during excavations. Several deciduous teeth were found in various locations around the skull. Finger phalanges were discovered in the thoracic region Following clearing, photos and measurements were taken. The bones were gathered, wrapped in aluminum foil, and boxed. If the burials follow a burial orientation based on the rising sun, which is a current working hypothesis, this burial seemed to have a fall/winter orientation as the head would have gazed slightly angled a few degrees to the south. An animal bone was found to the east of the grave, near the possible location of the infant’s feet. Once clearing of the soil was completed, final photographs were taken, and levels taken with a total station: Skull: 597.468 m. asl.; Center: 597.348 m. asl; Foot of grave: 597.401 m. asl.

Removal of the bones and a subsequent sweeping of the soil revealed more bones from the infant that had remained in the grave. Vertebrae were discovered during this sweep. The size of the vertebrae seemed larger than expected and at first confused excavators into thinking it might be a double grave with one body on top of the other. However, it appears that the backbone of the child was discovered 10 cm lower than the head which seemed to rest on a soil pillow or ledge. In addition, a large potsherd of was discovered below the remains.

Another pass of the soil following the extraction of the vertebrae resulted in the discovery of an adult-sized permanent incisor that may have been from the lower jaw. This tooth had shoveling (possible Asian features). It could be that this child in the grave was older than an infant. Because the face of the skull was totally destroyed, the estimation of age was virtually impossible. Two small animal bones were also discovered near the tooth. The rest of human remains were collected, wrapped, and boxed. Soil samples taken from head and abdominal areas.

A second potsherd at the same level was discovered to the west of the other one mentioned previously by a few centimeters. It is difficult to determine if these potsherds were placed deliberately and were already in the soil at time of interment. Final measurements and photographs were taken, and the level of the potsherd was measured at 597.153 m. asl. Once all the remains were removed, some gray-colored bricks (Munsell: 7.5 YR 5/1) were seen in the soil just west of the skull and at a slightly lower level. These were later identified in association with L-292.

Locus 277
Grave

In Unit 14, just to the west of L-205 new human remains were found. This included a skull fragment and a small deciduous tooth. An attempt was made to discern if a rectangular-shaped pit could be found in the soil. Eventually, it was decided to open a new Locus (L-277) in U-14. Due to the presence of a gray-colored brick seen in the soil it was thought a grave existed to the west side of the brick. Photos and levels were taken before clearing commenced: West side of suspected pit: 597.384 m. asl.; East side of suspected pit: 597.383 m. asl.; Level of visible brick: 597.395 m. asl.

During excavations, another cranium fragment and a deciduous tooth was also found. Eventually, part of a mandible was also found, this bone, however, appeared to be from an adult. As clearing continued, no burial pit was discerned. At that point, a gradual lowering of the soil proceeded to the eastern side of the revealed brick and due west of L-205. This attempt, too, proved to be unsuccessful in locating a possible grave.

Even though disarticulated human and animal bone fragments were found in the soil, no body or grave was discovered. This led excavators to conclude that the area could not be considered a grave, despite the presence of the gray-colored mudbrick in the soil and the accompanying human skull fragments. However, two days later, while excavating due west of L- 281, a juvenile skull in the soil, a fractured, adult-sized tibia was found in situ, which resulted in the discovery of virtually complete human remains of an adult. The locus was then re-opened and very gradually lowered with shovels in a westerly direction to detect the grave chamber. Animal bones were found in the fill during this clearing.

Disarticulated skull fragments (probably from the same remains as the other discovered in the vicinity of this locus) as well as a hyoid bone was found approximately 120 cm west of the tibia. The ground was then sprayed with water to fully discern the grave pit. More photographs were taken prior to proceeding with the complete exposure of the remainder of the skeleton.

The lower legs were fully exposed, and no feet bones were found. There is a possibility that the feet bones were removed from the grave when the children’s graves of L-281 and L-280 were dug during the time of interment. If this was the case, then it may indicate that the children in these graves were interred after the remains of L-277 were placed in the ground. The exact dimensions of the grave pit of the locus remained indiscernible. As the pelvis was revealed, it provided strong indicators that the interred was a male.

The skeleton was then exposed all the way to the skull as the excavation began on the eastern side of the grave with the discovery of a tibia bone. The skull was highly fractured on the top of

the cranium, thus verifying that the previously disarticulated skull fragments were from this body. The head was discernably propped up to face east and the mode of burial is the same as all the graves in the cemetery with the body in a supine position with the head to the west and feet to the east. The hands of the skeleton were crossed over the waist with the left arm placed on superior to the right. The left hand of the skeleton appeared to be clasping something, yet subsequent investigation found nothing in the hand. The crown of the cranium was highly fractured, and fragments were found in several locations around the western side of the grave. The head was clearly raised eastward but significantly separated and detached from the body to the southwest due to probable plow damage since there appeared to be no sign of damage or trauma to the neck of head prior to interment. The gaze was downward to the east-northeast with damage to the nasal bone which was northwest of the parietal lobe. The clavicles and scapulas also showed displacement as they were pushed down over the lower thoracic region, near the abdomen. The displacement of these upper bones indicates disturbance post interment. Further skull fragments were found 10 cm south of the original fragments around the skull.

Following full exposure of the remains, photographs levels with the total station were taken: Head (W): 597.010 m. asl.; Pelvis (C): 596.844 m. asl; Feet: (E): 596.761 m. asl. Level at the sides of the grave: North: 596.969 m. asl.; South: 596.939 m. asl. The bones were exhumed, measured, wrapped in foil, and boxed for analysis.

Following exhumation, a bead was found in the soil around the cervical vertebrae. This bead was probably at one time totally covered with a red glaze now only has a few specks of red glaze remaining. Photographs were taken of the bead in situ and this object was declared a special find (ID: Ib_21_C_IV_277_I001, see Cultural Material Analysis, Fig. 32, p. 65). In addition, the left maxilla and a disarticulated upper left front incisor was found. The teeth and maxilla were photographed in situ and following extraction of the other remains. Examination of the teeth revealed extensive wear, yet these 7 teeth had all been intact at time of burial. The grave pit was then leveled to the base of the pit. Additional teeth were found in the area around the where the skull was during this final clearing. The closing levels of grave pit were as follows: W: 597.026 m. asl; C: 597.068 m. asl.; E: 597.104 m. asl.

The initial clearing of this locus appeared to reveal juvenile remains (as noted above). However, the interred of L-277 was an adult male based on the features of the pelvis with an angular sacrum and blunt ischiopubic ramus. Based on the wear of the teeth this male was probably middle-aged at time of interment. The soil fill in and around the locus contained disarticulated juvenile remains which indicates the possibility that a child’s grave was interred close to this adult. This is confirmed by the presence of several children’s skulls found in the soil in the vicinity of this grave, particularly L-280 and L-281 which lay due east of this grave, as mentioned above. Thus, the juvenile remains could have come from either of these graves, or from some other unidentified grave.

It should also be noted that the grave of L-277 marks the westernmost grave found to date in this cemetery at Ilibalyk (Area C). It lay 5 meters to the east of the baulk of U-14.

Locus 280
Human Remains

During clearing operations In U-14/L-266, five small skulls were found in close proximity to one another in the southeast corner of the unit. L-280 was designated and lay approximately 2 m to the west of the eastern boundary of U-14. This and other infant skulls were noted in the soil usually as small “circles.” Usually, no grave pits or bricks are discerned prior to their discovery, which means they are usually found once struck by a shovel.

A level of this skull was taken with the total station: 597.164 m. asl. Following photographs, the decision was made to leave this and the other remaining infant graves in this unit unexcavated due to the small amount of additional info that would be obtained and due to time restraints. During mechanical clearing with a blower in the vicinity of L-280, a cowrie shell was found in the soil due south and immediately next to the child’s skull in this locus. It was designated a special find and photographs of the shell were taken in situ. It measured at a level of 597.168 m. asl. This is the fourth cowrie shell found to date in the cemetery at Ilibalyk and all have been found in conjunction with children’s graves. It is suspected that these shells are from the Indian Ocean region. (See Cultural Materials Analysis section, pp. 63-64, Fig. 31). Also, glass and iron slag fragments were found in the soil fill near this locus during the sifting process.

Locus 281
Human Remains

During clearing operations in U-14/L-266, five small skulls were found near one another in the southeast corner of the unit. Locus 281 was designated and lay approximately 2 m to the west of the eastern boundary of U-14 and due south of L-280 by approximately 40 cm. This and other infant skulls are noted in the soil usually as a small circular feature in the soil. Usually, no grave pits or bricks are discerned prior to their discovery, which means they are often found following a shovel strike.

A level of this skull was taken with the total station: 597.122 m. asl. Following photographs, the decision was made to leave this and the other remaining infant graves in this unit unexcavated due to the small amount of additional info that would be obtained and due to time restraints. Two small pottery fragments were found in the soil fill of this locus. It is possible, based on proximity that the remains of the feet and lower legs of L-205 are in relation to the skull found at this locus. However, this skull lay 10 cm lower in the soil in comparison with the feet of L-205 which would be less characteristic of the burials in the cemetery since the head is usually at a higher level than the feet.

Locus 282
Human Remains

During clearing operations In U-14/L-266, five small skulls were found in close proximity to one another in the southeast corner of the unit. L-282 was designated and lay directly on the eastern boundary of U-14 and U-9A. It was approximately 2 m to the west of L-280 and L-281 and 4 m due south of L-285 and L-287. This and other infant skulls are noted in the soil usually as a small circular feature in the soil. Usually, no grave pits or bricks are discerned prior to their discovery, which means they are often found following a shovel strike.

A level of this skull was taken with the total station: 597.157 m. asl. Following photographs, the decision was made to leave this and the other remaining infant graves in this unit unexcavated due to the small amount of additional info that would be obtained and due to time restraints. Some traces of ash were seen in the soil near this skull which are presumably from a mudbrick made with gray ash that are often in association with the graves. Skull fragments were dislodged during the clearing process of L-282. These were bagged and labeled.

Locus 285
Human Remains

During clearing operations in U-14/L-266, five small skulls were found in close to one another in the southeast corner of the unit. L-285 was opened and lay approximately 50 cm to the west of the eastern boundary of U-14 and approximately 40 cm north of the infant skull found in L-287. It was also due east by 60 cm of the infant grave excavated in L-269. This and other infant skulls are noted in the soil usually as a small circular feature in the soil. Usually, no grave pits or bricks are discerned prior to their discovery, which means they are often found following a shovel strike.

A level of this skull was taken with the total station: 597.195 m. asl. Following photographs, the decision was made to leave this and the other remaining infant graves in this unit unexcavated due to the small amount of additional info that would be obtained and due to time restraints.

Locus 287
Human Remains

During clearing operations In U-14/L-266, five small skulls were found in close proximity to one another in the southeast corner of the unit. L-287 was designated and lay 50 cm to the west of the eastern boundary of U-14. It was due south by 40 cm to the infant skull found in L-285 and approximately 1 meter south of the child’s grave excavated in L-269. This and other infant skulls are noted in the soil usually as a small circular feature in the soil. Usually, no grave pits or bricks are discerned prior to their discovery, which means they are often found following a shovel strike.

A level of this skull was taken with the total station: 597.144 m. asl. Following photographs, the decision was made to leave this and the other remaining infant graves in this unit unexcavated due to the small amount of additional info that would be obtained and due to time restraints.

Locus 288
Human Remains

In U-14, while lowering the overall level of L-266 to northwest of L-277, two disarticulated human phalanges (toes) were found. A new locus was opened, L-288. An attempt to find a grave pit or other human remains in association with these bones proved unsuccessful. Photographs were taken and a level was measured with the total station: 597.143 m. asl. It is possible that these bones are in association with the human remains of L-277.

Locus 292
Grave

In U-14, due west and at a lower level of the infant grave of L-269, gray colored bricks were clearly observed in the soil following the excavation of the remains in L-269. Approximately one meter to the west of these bricks, a small dark, pink-colored rectangular-shaped stone was also seen in the soil. In between this stone and the very clear gray bricks (two or three in number) to the east, an additional less-defined gray section of soil, which were also probable bricks, was also seen. As observed from the cleared surface of the soil, the dimensions of this suspected grave were 117 E/W x 70 N/S cm, suggesting a small child’s grave. A new locus (L-292) was opened with photographs and levels taken: E: 596.962 m. asl; C: 596.971 m. asl.; W: (level of stone): 596.987 m. asl.

Pieces of pottery, apparently from the temper of the bricks that covered the grave were found. Also, small human bones began to appear in the soil fill of the locus until eventually a small juvenile femur was seen in the middle section of the suspected grave. The bones were quite disheveled and all concentrated in one location. The pink/maroon-colored stone was exposed and lay on one of its elongated rectangular side with no apparent inscriptions.
A small and scattered collection of infant-sized bones with no skull was found in the eastern side of the suspected grave pit. The stone to the west was fully revealed and appeared possibly connected with the grave, however, this was speculative. No inscriptions were found on the stone which measured 13 x 6 x 2.5 cm. To ensure that no bones were any deeper, the excavators lowered the grave an addition 2-3 cm. The small bones were pulled, labeled, and packed. A final sweep of the soil under the pulled bones did reveal a small right clavicle and a few ribs. Closing levels of the grave pit were as follows: East: 597.074 m. asl.; Center: 597.014 m. asl.; West (base of stone): 597.140 m. asl. (2)

(2) It is noted that the measurements for L-292 may be inaccurate. The opening levels are off by approximately 10 to 15 cm lower than the opening levels. This may be due to a calibration error that occurred during the theodolite set up on the day opening measurements were taken. As a result, based on our understanding of infant/child burials, we believe that the closing measurements are the accurate ones. Thus, the actual opening measurements are probably in the 597.300 to 597.200 m. asl. range.

During clearing operations following a first pass of U-14/L-266, on the western side of U- 14 a rather large amount of animal bones and pottery in a concentrated area was steadily uncovered, particularly in the area beyond the westernmost grave discovered in the unit (L-277). As a result, a new locus was opened to document this increase. L-294 encompassed a 4.5 (E/W) x 11 (N/S) m section, or the area incorporating the entire western side of U-14. It is considered that this section marks the western boundary of the cemetery as characterized by the larger concentration of cultural material found in the soil. In addition, the animal bones from this section in several cases appear to have been butchered possibly for the purpose of meal preparation. More than 350 bone fragments and 200 potsherds were taken from the soil within this section of the unit with the central section of the locus having the highest concentration of finds. These bone finds appeared approximately 20 – 30 cm below the topsoil surface of U-14/L-266.

When comparing the soil fill of the eastern half of Unit 14 with the western half, the concentration of finds is 7.33 bones and 4.82 potsherds for every 1 m2 of soil in the western half of the unit with 1.78 bones and 3.07 potsherds for every 1m2 of soil in the eastern half of the unit. The eastern half of U-14 contains graves whereas the western half does not. Thus, based on the increase in cultural material, particularly the amount of animal bone, this provides evidence for the hypothesis that the western edge of the cemetery has been reached. It also provides evidence that possible food preparation was occurring around the borders of the cemetery.

Levels and photographs were taken: SW: 597.217 m. asl.; NW: 597.358 m. asl; NE: 597.246
m. asl.; SE: 597.206 m. asl.; C: 597.154 m. asl. Protruding out of the northern baulk of U-14 in this locus at the cleared level, a rock and fired brick were discovered. A level of this feature was also taken: 597.236 m. asl.

This excavation unit was delineated on the east side of Area C. It measured 15 E/W x 11 (N/S) m encompassing a total of 165 m2 and bordered to the east of Unit 7D by approximately 9 m and Unit 8B by approximately 2 m. Units 7D, first exposed during the 2019 excavations, yielded 19 excavated graves signifying the largest concentration of graves in Area C as well as the largest number of adult graves found so far in the cemetery.

An additional 8 possible graves were identified in this section and remain unexcavated. Unit 8B had even less excavation with the exception of a few infant graves exposed in this unit in 2018 with a further 20 identified, yet, unexcavated graves in 2019. Thus, opening U-15 was justified to confirm that graves continued eastward in the direction of Areas D and B. Most of the soil in this unit lay under a previous season’s dump piles with extra soil that may have artificially raised the previous modern surface prior to excavations in Area C. However, the eastern half of Unit 15, by approximately 5 meters at this level has never been previously exposed. Vegetation and soil characteristics are similar as throughout Area C.

(3) When the unit was first measured, the northern boundary was measured incorrectly, thus initial drone photos show the eastern boundary as only extending 14 meters to the east. This was later corrected with exposure according to the initially determined dimensions.

On the southwest side of the unit at the edge of the southern baulk, human remains were discovered. The skull juvenile/infant was initially exposed. The skull was fractured according to its fontanelles and was dislodged from the skull’s soil fill. The grave was at a higher level in the soil than the exposed soil to the west in U-7D which is characteristic of many of the juvenile burials throughout the cemetery. The soil was harder in the area around the grave, which may suggest mudbrick was used to line the grave. A new locus was opened (L-278). (See locus description below). While L-276 was in process of being completely lowered, excavations commenced on this grave. (See description below).

In the northwest corner of the unit an adult-sized femur and tibia bone (both partial fragments) were discovered. The area around the soil was carefully examined and the loose soil was cleared to expose a grave pit either in the cleared level or within the northern baulk. Neither location indicated that a grave was present. The bones were left in place until photos and levels could be taken. The fragments were 597.796 m. asl. A new locus was opened (L-279).

A metal pipe (opium pipe?; Ib_21_C_IV_276_I001) was discovered in the dump pile by a worker during removal of the initial layer of soil in the locus in the east-central section of Unit 15. In addition, a small, brown piece of paper/fabric/vellum (?) was found inside the pipe (Ib_C_IV_276_I002). There appeared to be four handwritten letters on the material. This artifact was carefully wrapped in cloth, labeled, and bagged. The pipe was photographed in situ at the suspected location and a level was taken with the total station and the find measured at a level of 597.702 m. asl. The material with the possible writing was considered too fragile to handle in the field and was later photographed in the field photography lab. (See Cultural Materials Analysis section, pp. 51-55, Figs 12,13,14).

Following the initial clearing of the level, it was determined to make a second pass with shovels to bring the Unit 15 level even with the cleared surface of units on the west side which would be congruent with the level in which additional graves might become visible in the soil. Only a small amount of cultural material was found in the soil at this level. Soil on the eastern end of the unit was much harder than the west probably because this soil was not excavated by the tractor during the topsoil removal in 2017.

As the entirety of L-276 was leveled down to the “cemetery level” of U-7D and U-8B, in the northeast corner of Unit 15, a skull was found in the soil. A new locus was assigned (L-286). Also, during this clearing process a flat iron fragment with a flared end was discovered at the 597.324
m. asl. It was designated as a special find and photographs were taken in situ. (Ib_C_IV_276_I003; See Cultural Material Analysis section, p. 67, Fig. 37).

Final clearing of the remaining dust in L-276 was conducted by mechanical blower. The exposed area was inspected for potential graves that might appear in the soil. At this phase in the excavations, four additional potential graves were specifically identified, and one grave (L-278) was in the process of being excavated. One possible grave appeared with a line and cluster of gray- colored bricks in the soil on the western boundary of U-15 (designated L-289). One child’s skull was identified near the east baulk of the unit (designated L-286). Two other possible graves (designated L-291 and L-290) were due south of L-286 and almost completely parallel with one another. All the graves appeared to have a west-to-east orientation with L-290 and L-291 extending into the eastern baulk. The decision was made to partially expose the possible graves in L-290 and L-291; to leave the child’s skull in L-286 unexcavated once its approximate age was determined; and to fully excavate the possible remains in L-289. (See loci descriptions below).

Following two days of rain showers, more features were seen in both the cleared surface of L-276 (U-15) as well as within the baulk of the unit particularly the northern baulk due to the wet soil. A possible grave was seen in this northern profile. In addition, the base sterile layer could be distinguished in both the northern and eastern baulks. The grave pits as seen in the east baulk were also more easily distinguished in L-290 and L-291.

The rain also revealed a series of circles in the soil, all with the diameter of 65 cm, on the western side of U-15/L-276. They were positioned as follows:

Circle 1: 480 cm east of the west boundary, 180 cm from the north baulk Circle 2: 560 cm east of the west boundary, 430 cm from the north baulk Circle 3: 670 cm east of the west boundary, 670 cm from the north baulk Circle 4: 760 cm east of the west boundary, 970 cm from the north baulk Circle 5: 0 cm east of the west boundary, 660 cm from the north baulk

A possible sixth circle was seen in the soil but was failed to be noted prior to moisture evaporation. The circles did not appear to provide a clear pattern for any sort of feature or potential construction. Their complete uniformity in diameter suggests that these were created by modern agricultural equipment, specifically the planting of trees. Since the location is said by the locals to have at one time been an apple orchard during the latter half of the 20th century, these features are considered to indicate that process.

At the conclusion of excavations, the northern, southern, and eastern baulk profiles were drawn. Closing levels for the locus measured as follows: SW: 597.600 m. asl; NW: 597.760 m. asl; NE: 597.500 m. asl.; SE corner was the fill removal ramp.)

During initial expose in U-15/L-276 on the southwest side of the unit on the edge of the southern baulk, human remains were discovered. A juvenile skull was exposed whose fontanelles were slipping from the soil fill inside the skull. The soil was hard in the area around the remains which may have suggested that mudbrick lined the grave.

Photographs and levels were taken of the revealed skull: Top of skull: 597.712 m. asl.; Base of skull: 597.650 m. asl. Excavations proceeded on the remains utilizing small dental tools and brushes. The body was supine and extended with a west-to-east orientation, the skull was separated along the fissures of the fontanelles though predominately intact with most of the remains in a good overall state of preservation, though some bones, especially the ribs were somewhat disturbed. Very few of the phalanges of the feet or hands were present except for five finger phalanges. The right radius and ulna were missing. The head was slightly raised, but in this case gazing south/southeast which may indicate intentional placement in this direction. The legs appeared to have been drawn together at the feet. The left arm was placed along the side of the body with the left hand along the ilium of the pelvis. Because the radius and ulna of the right forearm were missing, placement of the right hand was indeterminate.

A small mudbrick was found on top of the thoracic area of the body. Three small stones were found in the grave fill. One was a rectangular red granite stone under the left pelvis; the other a rounded stone but flattened on both sides under the right pelvis; and one stone was placed on the outside of the left humerus by the elbow.

The grave was covered with gray-colored mudbricks as indicative of the brick found on the thoracic region (which had a pink tint, possibly due to calcination or burning). Other bricks were especially visible in the lower appendicular region of the skeleton with gray soil fill on the outer sides of the legs as well as between the femurs and tibias. Preliminary field analysis of the teeth suggests a child between 2 to 4 years at time of death.

The remains were photographed with levels taken of both the remains and of the final level of the grave pit. Levels of skeletal remains: Head (E) 597.509 m. asl.; Pelvis (C) 597.438 m. asl.; Feet (W) 597.472 m. asl. Closing levels of grave: W: 597.622 m. asl; C: 597.599 m. asl; E: 597.616 m. asl. (4)

The skeletal remains were exhumed, measured, wrapped in aluminum foil, labeled, and boxed for later analysis. Soil samples were taken from around both the head and abdominal areas.

(4) Once again, it is noted that the skeletal levels are lower than the closing levels of the grave with an error of 16 to 10 cm. This error is possible due to the same theodolite error mentioned above (see f.n. 2)

In the northwest corner of U-15/L-276 an adult-sized femur and tibia bone (both partial fragments) were discovered. The area of the soil around these bones was carefully examined, the loose soil cleared for the purpose of trying to discern a grave either in the floor level of L-276 or in the northern baulk of the unit. The bones were left in place until photographs and levels could be taken. The locus was opened and measured at a level of 597.796 m. asl. This level for adult graves is atypical and higher than most adult remains discovered in Area C; thus, this may be a reason that these bones were disarticulated and not discovered with a specific grave and may have been dislodged during initial clearing in 2017 or from previous agricultural activity.

The bones appear to be a left femur and tibia. The partial femur measured 25 cm in length with the ball joint fully corroded. The broken tibia measured 33 cm in length. A small stone was also present under the bone at the time of the discovery. All soil in the vicinity of the bone was sifted, a small bone fragment (approx. 4 cm) was discovered but it was unknown as to whether this fragment was part of these human remains or in association with the leg bones.

Locus 284
Human Remains

During clearing operation in U-15/L-276, a disarticulated (unassigned) juvenile’s right femur was found in the soil. An attempt to find an associated grave proved unsuccessful. However, a new locus was opened, L-284, with the revealed bone measured at a level of 597.235 m. asl. Photos were taken of the bone in situ and the bone was measured (17 cm, ball joint was still intact), labeled, and bagged.

During the lowering operations in U-15/L-276, a skull was revealed in the northeast corner of the unit. The remains were assigned a new locus (L-286). Photographs were taken and it measured at a level of 597.358 m. asl. and was located 1.2 m from the northern baulk and 1 m west of the eastern baulk. The skull was further cleared to the top of the forehead and around the back to confirm that this was from a juvenile. This skull had a brownish discoloration very similar in color to the adult skull found in L-291 which was enclosed by a wooden cover/coffin and located just 60 cm to the northwest of the adult skull. This raises the question as to whether this juvenile skull may also have had a small coffin/cover associated with it, although no wood or other material was found in or around the skull. Ultimately, it was decided to leave the remains in the soil. The skull was then re-covered with soil and will remain unexcavated. This does provide confirmation of the existence of a child’s grave at this location.

Following the clearing of U-15/L-276 to the same level as the western boundary of U-7D and U-8B, this locus was first identified based on the presence of gray-colored mudbricks in the soil following mechanical clearing of the dust on the floor of the unit. The potential boundaries of the grave were discerned based on the mudbricks in the soil with the boundaries of the grave proceeding southwest and northeast of the identified locus with the latter boundary laying close to the northern baulk of the unit. One significant cluster of bricks could be identified in the surface in what might be considered the center of the possible grave.

Following initial photographs and an opening level (597.675 m. asl.) an initial sweep of the soil made with hand trowels and putty knives. Another mudbrick was found on the north side of the revealed feature. After lowering the soil 36 cm below the cleared surface of L-276, no human remains had been found. The large cluster of bricks to the northeast were removed to access the rest of the potential grave and to determine if excavators had gone in the wrong direction of the suspected pit as determined by the outlay of the bricks.

The locus was expanded to the northeast by 107 cm and lowered to the same level as the rest of the locus. Still nothing was found at this 36-40 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276. The decision was made to continue to lower the soil in 5 cm increments within the suspected grave pit.
One section of gray bricks on the south side of the locus appeared to have at least 3 to 4 courses that proceeded downward almost 45 cm below the cleared surface of L-276. This raised the question that if these bricks proceeded downward, then perhaps the grave was dug to an even lower depth. Therefore, lowering continued despite no apparent cultural material. There were no other bricks in floor of the locus and sandy, brownish-red soil emerged at this point.

At the 50 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276, following clearing of the dust by mechanical means, an oblong, oval shape with a slightly darker colored soil was seen in the floor of locus with an east/west orientation which indicated a grave. Using trowels and hand tools, excavators attempted to see if human remains were present in this oblong oval which measured 40 N/S x 140 E/W cm.

At this 50 cm level below the cleared surface, some human remains began to be revealed and were eventually identified as the right foot of the skeleton. The foot lay with its plantar side inward and dorsal side outward, meaning it lay with the bottom of the feet facing inward toward each other. The femurs, however, as later revealed were not in a similar bowed position. The depth of this first revealed bone was taken at 596.985 m. asl. The east side of the revealed grave pit measured 597.128 m. asl and the west side was 597.006 m. asl. demonstrating that the west side of the grave was 12 cm higher. However, the pelvic bones appeared on the western side of the pit, thus demonstrating that the rest of the body lay under the unexcavated western wall of the locus and that the entirety of the pit was yet to be revealed. At this point, the revealed bones were photographed, and a level was taken of the pelvis (597.013 m. asl.).

Excavations then focused on lowering the soil on the western side of the grave. Eventually, the skull was revealed at the suspected depth. The distance of the skull in the west measured 140 cm from the revealed right foot. Just to the west and immediately behind the skull, a large animal bone (probably cow) was found. It was at the same level as the skull. This could have been a fragment included with brick as temper, but its large size suggests this not to be the case. It could have been a part of the brick fill or soil fill of the grave deposited at the time of interment. Another option is that it was for some reason placed there intentionally.

Excavations continued to expose the remains from the revealed right foot up toward the axial part of the remains including the tibiae and the femurs. The skull and cranial features were also exposed. Overall, the remains were in very good condition. The body was supine with the head raised and with the gaze in a southeasterly direction and slightly downward.

The skull was raised looking southeast and a bit downward. The forearms were placed across the lower abdominal region with the left arm placed at an almost 90-degree angle and resting above the left Illum and the right arm below the left at approximately a 130-degree angle resting across the right Illum.

The remains were completely exposed, and photographs and levels were taken: Skull:
597.137 m. asl.; Pelvis: 597.003 m. asl; Feet: 596.977 m. asl. Examination of the skull and pelvis revealed that the sex of the remains was female based on the sharp medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus and the cranial features such as a sloped forehead, rounded orbits, the smooth nuchal crest, and small mastoid process. All epiphyses were fused confirming an age of more than 28 years. Wear on teeth suggests possible middle age. A dental forensic examination was conducted by by Dr. Byung Yeon Lee (see Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 86-87 and the Field Forensic Analysis section, p. 138). The bones revealed no apparent sign of pathology or trauma. The various appendicular bones were measured as well as the skull’s diameter and width of the pelvis. All the remains were wrapped in aluminum foil, labeled, bagged, and boxed for further analysis. The soil of the grave fill was sifted. The body had no apparent grave goods. Following exhumation of the remains, a final sweep of the soil in the bottom of the grave was conducted. Closing photographs and levels with a total station were taken: W: 596.931 m. asl.; C: 596.914 m. asl.; 596.909 m. asl.

Locus 290
Grave

This locus identified a grave discovered on the eastern side of U-15. Following the total clearing of U-15/L-276, possible grave features appeared in the soil and this locus was opened when possible mudbrick and soil disturbance was observed 4 m from the northern baulk with the potential west-east orientation of the grave extending into the eastern baulk.

After excavations commenced, a few potsherds were found along with small flecks of charcoal. Eventually, it was determined that what were thought to be gray mudbricks was the dark soil from the so-called “detrital layer.” It appeared that the line and rectangular features found in the soil following mechanical clearing were not mudbricks but this detrital soil. Following the removal of a few more centimeters of soil, a few pieces of pottery were found including some glazed fragments. The locus was almost closed, thinking that the area was not a grave, however, it was eventually decided to continue lowering this locus an additional 30 – 40 cm to ensure that no human remains could be found.

At the 34 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276, gray mudbrick was observed in the soil on both the southern and northern walls of the cut revealing a probable grave. Photographs were taken. It was decided to remove soil on the northwest side and gradually lower the soil fill on the southwest side of the locus to better reveal the mudbricks. Levels of these bricks were measured at 596.952 m. asl. To gain access to the grave, excavators expanded the locus to the dimensions of 150 (N/S) x 160 E/W.

The surrounding soil continued to be lowered around the revealed mudbricks in the soil. A clear line in the soil was seen running in a slight southeast-northwest direction proceeding into the east baulk of U-15. On the west side of the potential grave, an arch of 2-3 bricks could be seen within the east baulk. It appeared that a full layer of bricks extended across the grave at the 27 cm below the cleared surface level of L-276. Two bricks appeared at this upper level on the southwest side of the probable grave. In addition, a brick could be seen in the southern wall of the excavated cross-section.

Pink colored (calcinated) soil appeared to the north of the gray bricks accompanied by ash- colored soil which may be remnants of gray mudbrick. The floor of the locus was cleared using a mechanical blower, at which point the grave pit was clearly defined in the soil with an arc in the soil on the west side of the fill with the east side of the feature extending into the east baulk. The upper level of mudbricks was removed following photographs. While removing those bricks, a rather large rim/handle combination from a small juglet was found. (8 x 6.5 x 3.5 cm; handle: 2.8 cm wide; Inner hold of handle: 2.3 x 1.5 cm; weight: 108.7 g.) It was found approximately 30 cm below the cleared surface of L-276 (U-15) and within a gray brick. This again demonstrates that significantly large pieces of pottery were being used as temper for these bricks.

Once the upper mudbricks were removed, the clear parameters of the grave were seen in the soil and measured 60 (N/S) x 90 cm (as extending from the northern border) and 70 cm (as extending from the southern border). At this point, the skeletal remains had not been discovered.
The skull was found at 17 cm below the initial layer of bricks after lowering the locus with two passes using hand tools. The ashy, gray colored mudbrick continued to be seen at this level. The skull appeared to be that of an adult. The ashy, gray-colored bricks were first revealed 17 cm below the line features discerned at the L-276 level and 33 cm below the first layer of bricks, thus 40 cm below the cleared level of L-276, making the skull 90 cm below the initial cleared surface of L-276. Thus, the skull was approximately 150-175 cm below the current daylight surface
The skull was photographed and measured at a depth of 596.746 m. asl. The lower section of the remains was presumably under the east baulk of U-15. It was decided to merely reveal the skull and upper torso and leave the bones in situ until excavators could return later and do a more complete excavation.

The skull’s upper maxilla was the first to appear with all the teeth present. As the entirety of the skull was revealed it was noted that its gaze was to the north with the head askance in that direction. While clearing the skull to the south of the right temporal lobe, a round metal disk-shape with a deep blue color appeared in the soil. The color because of corrosion from the soil suggests that the metal was copper. The disk’s size was measured by means of the imprint made from the corroded disk on a clod of soil immediately next to the metal. The disk’s diameter was 20 mm. Photographs were taken.

The exposed skull’s facial features displayed wide check bones and a full set of teeth with the features favoring mongoloid characteristics. Based on field examination by forensic dentist, Dr. Byung Yeon Lee, preliminary estimates are for a female with an age range of of approximately 30 years old at the time of death.

As excavations continued around the skull, what originally was thought to be a metal disk such as a piece of jewelry or earring, proved to be a type of phylactery cylinder which was part of a Mongolian boqta (known in Russian as bocca, Chinese as guguguan or Kazakh as saykele). Wood fragments which were apparently a part of the boqta frame were seen in the soil near the skull and micro-sized blue and white glass paste beads also began to be exposed. The beads began to emerge from the fill as soon as the soil was excavated with a small brush. These were removed with the attempt to keep them in order. This proved almost impossible due to their extremely small size. In addition, a piece of worked wood with a small fleck of red paint was also found close to the top of the skull. These wooden fragments appeared to proceed behind part of the skull on the right side. The wood fragments visible in the soil appeared to be parallel with the head and extended southward.

The area around the metal cylinder on the right side of the skull was carefully cleared of soil for the propose of photographing this grave good. During this clearing process, more wood was discovered in situ. It appeared to be a part of the larger headdress (boqta). While inconclusive, the wood at the base of the cylinder appeared to be birch bark. In addition, an attachment loop was seen connected to the metal cylinder presumably for the purpose of attaching the cylinder phylactery to the boqta. As the cylinder was revealed, a crack present prior to exposure was seen in the metal cylinder. The artifact seemed so fragile that it was determined not to extract the cylinder or to excavate any of the remains until the entire grave could be removed as a single block of soil to be examined carefully in a laboratory.

A metal detector scanned the entire locus. Metal was also detected in the grave on the north side of the skull away from the originally exposed copper cylinder but was not examined due to the decision to proceed no further with excavations. With neither the available manpower, equipment, nor time, such a complicated excavation will be necessary later. An altitude level was carefully taken with a total station next to the site of the cylinder and measured 596.702 m. asl.
Following photographs, the area around the skull and cylinder was carefully re-covered with soil. The grave pit was covered with Geotech fabric, more soil placed on the fabric, and the entire section of the revealed pit was overlaid with PVC pipe to protect the artifact and skull from the weight of the backfilled soil.

The piece of wood which dislodged on the southeast side of the skull had a triangular-shaped. The ends on two sides appeared to have some sort of inlaid red pigment or paint (ID #: Ib_21_C_IV_290_I001, see Cultural Materials Analysis section, p. 48, Fig. 9).

Locus 291
Grave

Based on the appearance of a gray brick in the soil in the northeast corner of U-15, 170 cm from the north baulk and 70 cm from the east baulk, a new locus was opened (L-291). It lay due north of L-290 (adult grave) by 220 cm and due south of the infant skull in L-286 by 60 cm. Opening photos and levels were taken with the initial measurement taken at the spot of the gray- colored mudbrick from the cleared level of L-276 at 597.475 m. asl.

Initial excavations attempted to find the boundaries of a suspected grave that appeared to possibly penetrate the east baulk of U-15. The area of the suspected grave with the large square- shaped mudbrick (12 x 12 cm) visible in the soil was lowered using shovels to a depth of 45 cm below the cleared surface of L-276. The dimensions of the excavation at this stage measured 85 (N/S) x 140 (E/W) cm.

After lowering the soil an additional 60 cm below the cleared surface (596.866 m. asl.) no feature or cultural material was found except for 2 small animal bones in the fill. Initially, it was thought that the area was devoid of any human remains. However, a final attempt was made to lower the locus further to see if remains were present at lower depths despite the failure to find bricks.

After a 3-5 cm pass in the soil with hand tools, a large, adult-sized cranium was discovered in the soil. The head was not raised, and the face was completely supine and immediately visible. The facial bones appeared to have a dark brown color. This discoloration was likely due to the body residing in either a wooden cover or coffin. The wood was clearly seen in a rectangular shape encompassing the skull to the west, south, and north. The body and grave obviously extended into the east baulk of U-15 and was on a similar parallel with the remains of L-290.

Photographs and levels were taken: Skull: 597.061 m. asl; NW corner of coffin/cover (?):
597.034 m. asl.; SW corner of coffin/cover(?) 597.006 m. asl. NE side of coffin/cover(?) near east baulk 597.060 m. asl.; SE side of coffin/cover(?) near baulk: 597.031 m. asl.

The metal detector was used to scan the entire locus and metal was detected around the parameters of the coffin/wood cover. While speculative, this may indicate the presence of coffin nails. Further excavation would be necessary to confirm this hypothesis. It is evident that the coffin/cover extended across the body and probably over the face as well since wood was observed at the head and on each side of the face immediately next to the skull.

The distance between the skull in L-291 and the skull in L-290 is 230 cm. They are almost exactly parallel with each other suggesting an orderly interment as has been seen in other locations of the cemetery in Area C.

Excavators attempted to fully delineate the coffin/cover as much as possible to reveal the wooden planks that extended along the sides of the revealed skull which proceeded into the east baulk as well as the planks placed north and south across the unrevealed torso. The wood was obviously very deteriorated and difficult to delineate from the soil. An attempt was made to dig along the sides of the wooden cover/coffin to determine if this was a coffin or a wooden cover. Nothing indicated that the wood extended below the bones. However, this was not definitive since the grave was not fully excavated. Because this grave extended into the east baulk of U-15 and time was limited, it was determined not to remove the remains or excavate any further until a more opportune time, presumably next season.

It should also be noted that L-291 is the second grave found in the Area C with a wooden cover/coffin. In 2019, the remains of L-131 (U-7A) also contained such a cover. Initial field forensics identified these remains as from a possible middle adult female. No nails or metal fasteners were discovered in conjunction with that grave (See 2019 Field Report, pp. 35-36, 38; 185-86).

The east baulk of U-15, following a rain, revealed an initial cut for the grave in L-291 on the south of the grave pit. This suggests a possible niche-type burial. Within the baulk, it appeared that the soil extended downward in the interment chamber, suggesting a soil collapse. The question remains as to whether this might indicate the apparent collapse happened when wood from the possible coffin collapsed under the weight of the soil. Only further excavation could answer this question.

The face of the cranium is all that was revealed of the human remains. Initial observations suggest the sex of the interred was male based on the very pronounced brow and large rectangular- shaped orbits. No lower mandible was exposed, but the upper maxilla had no teeth. One disarticulated tooth was discovered in the fill. The soil was sifted with only one small bone fragment found along with wood fragments from the coffin/cover. Initial observations suggest that this male was possibly over 50 years at time of death.

Final levels and photographs were taken: Skull: 597.006 m. asl.; SE side of wood coffin/cover: 597.000 m. asl; NE side of wood coffin/cover: 597.021 m. asl. The entirety of the excavated locus was covered with Geotech fabric and backfilled.

Locus 293
Possible Grave

In the southwest side of U-15 at the cleared level of L-276 and slightly to the north of L-278 (infant’s grave) a possible grave pit measuring 200 E/W x 100 N/S cm appeared in the soil. The ability to see this possible grave was enhanced due to rain from the previous day. The feature had an oblong shape in the soil with an east-west orientation. A new locus was opened. Photographs and levels were taken: W: 597.617 m. asl; C: 597.595 m. asl.; E: 597.609 m. asl. No excavations were undertaken as this feature was discovered on the last day of field excavations. It may demonstrate that the infant burial of L-278 was placed above this grave probably at a later date.

In the northern baulk the topsoil/backfill is clearly seen. Additionally, plow furrows appear at the 6, 8 and 11.5 m meter marks. Near L-279, in the northwest side of the north baulk, brown- colored soil appears from 50 cm to the 2.5 m mark in a west-to-east direction. Some gray fill due east of this feature may be present.
In the southern baulk, a mudbrick is present at the 10.80 m mark (going from west to east). This brick is within the cultural layer and appeared to be in association with the darker gray soil. Also, between the 11.40 m and 12.00 m mark, brown soil was seen to cut into this gray soil from the base of the baulk which may indicate a possible grave (?).

At the 5 m mark and the 5.1 m mark, two small mudbricks, (5 cm in diameter) appear in the baulk. These appear in the vicinity of L-278 (infant grave) and may be associated with that grave. At the 80 cm mark the topsoil/backfill disappears, thus the exposed surface to the end of the 20 cm mark is part of the previous cultural layer. At the 20 cm mark running along the remaining length of the baulk toward the west, the soil is slightly darker.

In the eastern baulk, the topsoil was also easily seen. From the 9.3 m mark (N to S) to the
10.1 m mark, there is an 8 – 10 cm wide dark spot (ash?) that lies just under the topsoil layer. At the 10.1 m mark (at the beginning of the soil removal ramp) an oblong gray feature appeared in the fill of the baulk. To the north and 4 cm lower a “floating” brick is seen. At the 9.30 m mark. Between the 8.8 m – 9.2 m mark, a thin (3-4 cm) line of this same gray color could be seen. This may indicate a grave.

Cultural Material Analysis

This section will provide an expanded analysis of what the team considers to be finds of significance. This review highlights those cultural finds which contribute to the overall context of the site and provides an emphasis for subsequent researchers for comparative purposes and could possibly assist in a greater understanding of both the context of Ilibalyk as well as the greater Central Asian context.

As detailed in the Unit and Loci Descriptions, this kayrak (gravestone, ID: Ib_17_IV_В_3_I009, pp. 18-19, Fig. 4 below) was discovered during excavations in Unit 13, in the disturbed topsoil layer designated Locus 262. It is the 39th gravestone discovered in cemetery of Ilibalyk and it was found in Locus 263. (See description below and in Artifact Collection Appendix D, p. 171). The cross inscription’s iconography is described below.

Unfortunately, the kayrak is missing its lower third. Because the cutline is straight and even, we surmise that it was cut by heavy machinery like a plow, perhaps, during the time when the field served as a Soviet collective farm. We should not assume that the findspot was the original location where it was placed by the generation which carved it. Nevertheless, it is within the cemetery boundaries.

The artisans chose the stone for its size and naturally flat surface. The cross was carved as a sunken relief, delineating the shape as well as providing a rougher interior texture, allowing the cross to be seen apart from the natural surface, especially in raking light. The cross’ top vertical arm and the two horizontal arms terminate in concaved flared ends—like some of the other kayraks discovered at Usharal-Ilibalyk. The lower vertical arm tapers (i.e. a gradually reducing width) which is unique to this particular kayrak.

Because the lower portion is missing, we cannot be completely sure of the typology.
Nevertheless, we suggest there are two possibilities ways to reconstruct the cross. First, the taper could merely be an aberration, and the lower part of the cross also had a flared end like the other arms (Fig. 6a). If so, this should be considered a so-called Bolnisi Cross, “latinized” so that the lower vertical arm is longer than the horizontal arms (also known as the Cross of St. John in western medieval heraldry). The second possibility is that the taper continued down to a point; if so, this should be considered a croix fichée (or, in English, a “cross fitchy”) (Fig. 6b).

If, indeed, this is a cross fitchy design then it is a significant addition to the Semirechye Corpus. The earliest use of the croix fichée can be traced to the Carolingian period, particularly, on a rare coin of the French king Louis IV; it continued to be used in the next two centuries in heraldry, including in Palestine during the Crusades. For example, an icon—most likely painted on the island of Cyprus—shows St. Marina of Antioch who carries a dagger in the form of a cross fitchy (Fig. 7). According to legend, Marina was swallowed by a dragon and used her dagger, shaped like a cross, to cut her way out (de Voragine 1993, 368-70). The variety of cross types at Usharal-Ilibalyk signify how western cross typology influenced the carvers. While we cannot be certain of the means of transmission—such as through illuminated books, textiles, or eye-witness observation through travel—it does underscore how Usharal-Ilibalyk was a center of both material and cultural exchange.

Fig. 6. Hypothetical reconstruction of the Kayrak’s cross typology; a. Bolnisi Cross; b. Cross Fitchy. (C. A. Stewart)

In Locus 290, which was a grave in Unit 15 on the eastern side of Area C, what are the probable remains of a Mongolian-era boqta headdress was found to the south and west of a skull in the discovered in the grave. Because this grave extended into the eastern baulk of the excavation unit and due to a lack of time, a full excavation was impossible and will have to wait for a future excavation. (For a full description of the locus see Unit and Loci Summaries section, pp. 40-43).

While clearing soil from around the skull, the very small glass paste beads (Fig. 8) were revealed. All the beads, approximately 20 in number, were white in color except for at least three blue beads, two of which were significantly worn and faded. Another of the beads was fragmented and had a rectangular shape and measured 7 mm in length and 4 mm in width. All the beads ranged in size between 1 mm and 3 mm in size. Due to their fragile condition, none of the beads were cleaned at the field lab, therefore, a color analysis is incomplete. Based on what is known of boqtas, these beads were probably embroidered onto the tall section of the headdress in a specific pattern.

Fig. 9. Wood fragment (superior and anterior view) from boqta headdress, Locus 290

In the same location as the beads, a small, shaped wood fragment measuring 2.64 x 0.88 x
0.72 cm (Fig. 9) was also discovered. The exact type of wood has yet to be determined, however, speculation is that it is birch wood based on what is known about other boqta headdresses. The wood is triangular with a rounded edge on one side and a notched edge on the other. The bottom of the notched edge has a dark, brown color and may have been connected to another piece of the headdress at one point. The other edge contains some type of red pigment on each terminal end. Further analysis will be necessary to determine the exact composition of the red pigment.

The boqta (or bocca) type headdress originated in Mongolia, at least by the end of the 12th century, and its use soon spread to areas where the Mongols had conquered. It was basically a bonnet, tied under the chin with a string or ribbon, surmounted by tall cylindrical drum, upon which rested an inverted trapezoidal box; however, its specific shape, decoration, and detailing could vary widely depending on the preferences of the wearer. Based on historical descriptions and archaeological remains, a variety of materials could have been used to craft them, such as wood (bamboo, mulberry, birch, etc.), cover them (muslin, felt or silk), and decorate them (pearls, coral, beads, jade, gold, feathers, etc.) (Pozdnyakov, et. al, 74-82).

A variety of foreign historical sources describe the boqta, which emphasizes its uniqueness to Mongol culture as well as its conspicuousness. In 1219, the Chinese Taoist monk Qiu Chuji— just before passing through the cities of Almalyk and Balasagun—described the hat of Mongol women:

The married women wear a head-dress of birch-bark, some two feet high. This they generally cover with a black woolen stuff, but some of the richer women use red silk. The end [or top] (of this head-dress) is like a duck; they call it ku-ku. They are in constant fear of people knocking against it, and are obliged to go backwards and crouching through the doorways of their tents. (Li Chih-Ch'ang , 67).

Here, Qiu Chuji is repeating the Mongol word gu-gu, which is the generic term for “hat.” Likewise, this is the same word that Chao Hung uses also to designate the hat in 1221; Chao Hung was a Chinese diplomat of the Sung dynasty who wrote a lengthy account of his visit with the Mongols. He further remarked that only the wives of the local rulers wore the boqta, not just any aristocratic or wealthy lady (Pelliot, 156; Munkueva; Olbricht et. al., 79, 119). By the year 1255, William of Rubruck, made this detailed and accurate description:

In addition, they [the Mongols] have a head-dress called a bocca and made of tree bark or some lighter material if they can find it. It is thick and round, two hands in circumference and one cubit or more high, and square at the top like the capital of a column. They cover this bocca with expensive silk cloth; it is hollow inside, and on the capital in the middle, or on the square part, they put a sheaf of quills or of thin reeds, again a cubit or more in length. And they decorate this sheaf at the top with peacock’s feathers and around its shaft with the little feathers from a mallard’s tail and even precious stones. This decoration is worn on top of the head by rich ladies: they fasten it on securely with a fur hood which has a hole at the top made for this purpose, and in it they put up their hair, gathering it from the back onto the top of the head in a kind of knot and placing over it the bocca, which is then tied firmly at the throat. Consequently, when a number of ladies together are out riding and are seen from a distance, they resemble knights with helmets on their heads and raised lances: for this bocca looks like a helmet and the sheaf [protruding] above like a lance (quoted in Jackson and Morgan, 88-89).

Note that William interprets these hats as a sign of wealth and status within the aristocracy, following the identification made by Chao Hung. As such, given the orientation of the burial within the cemetery, is appears that the woman buried here was a member of the local elite who practiced the Christian faith.

Immediately next to the skull in L-290 on the south side near the right temporal lobe, a metal cylinder probably composed of cooper or bronze was noted (Fig. 10-11). The entirety of the cylinder could not be exposed. However, the exposed length measured approximately 5 cm with a diameter of 20 mm. The exposed cylinder also contained what appeared to be an attachment loop which is characteristic of other boqtas. The cylinder extended downward into the soil and into appeared to be in direct contact with possible birch wood. The dorsal end of the cylinder appeared to have decorative features. These included 2 narrow beaded bands on either side of 3 rows of larger “beads” or raised circular reliefs. The cylinder appeared to be damaged prior to exposure with a large crack from corrosion seen on the western side of the cylinder and extending around its circumference. It is speculated that this cylinder is a type of phylactery box that was attached to the upper section of the boqta. Plans for this artifact include taking the entire grave out as a block and conducting careful excavations in a laboratory.

Fig. 10. Boqta phylactery cylinder on the southern (right) side of parietal lobe of female skull in L-290. Note the wood bark (birch?) immediately south of the cylinder. Photo: Maolin Abdikalyk

Fig. 11. Boqta phylactery cylinder (view from south) showing decorative feature. (Photo: Maylen Abdikalyk).

While excavators were clearing the soil in U-15 of Area C, in the designated level of Locus 276, a metal smoking pipe (Ib_21_C_IV_276_I001) was discovered in the soil fill at coordinates 44T 410216 4887038 UTM, and a depth of 597.702 m. asl. (Fig. 12) The pipe’s stem is 8.24 x
3.32 x 1.17 cm long. The pipe’s bowl is 2.21 cm in diameter. It is made from a bronze/copper alloy. The pipe has a long crack along the dorsal side of the pipe’s stem. Green corrosion (patina) is seen throughout the pipe, indicating copper content. The bowl appears to have some sort of residue, possibly remains from whatever substance was smoked in the pipe. A small gash or nick is seen along one side of the pipe from the excavator’s tool prior to discovery.

Within the pipe stem, a small fragment of either wool or parchment (?) was discovered by the worker who found the pipe as the fragment fell out following discovery. Immediately, it was recognized that the fragment, with a dark brown color, contained writing in black ink. The fragment measures 82.66 x 17.5 mm and weighs 0.14 g. It has a slight curvature, and the center appears to have evidence of some sort of binding, in which the fragment may be two conjoined pieces, though this is a preliminary conclusion. The fragment was so light (weighing 0.14 g.) and fragile that it was determined not to take a picture of it in the field, but to immediately protect it from the elements.

Fig. 12. Metal pipe (opium pipe?) and accompanying material fragment with writing

Initial investigations did reveal that this fragment contained writing on one side (what we will designate as the obverse side). In total, there appear to be 9 stylus markings on the obverse. Proceeding in a left-to-right direction, there is a wedge-shaped jot in the upper left corner followed by two other successive strokes. The fourth marking reveals what appears to be a curved marking, one U-shaped with a left-facing curve underneath, and a line with a reversed U. The fifth marking is best characterized as a very distinct pretzel-shaped design, with an extended line going to the right. This extends continuously to the sixth mark which rises upward in a reverse zigzag. Another dot (seventh mark) is seen just below the extended line from the pretzel shape. Further to the right are two final u-shaped markings one slightly above the other. The top marking is thicker with everted “rims”, the other is less uniform in shape.

The reverse appeared to have no visible writing, although certain sections appear to have black splotches which could be writing. Only laboratory analysis could conclude whether these dark spots are ink. The overall fragment has many wrinkles, but the item was too fragile to easily smooth it out.

Both Dr. Mark Dickens and Dr. Peter Zieme were able to examine photographs of the fragment. Their initial analysis enabled them to only determine that the one distinct “pretzel- shaped” letter is most certainly an example of Old Uighur (See Figs. 13-14). In fact, this shape is a ligature of the letters pe and waw (Fig. 15-16). The other letters (and or diacritic markings) were less discernable, and Dr. Zieme stated that it was possible to potentially see letters the letters as č(?)l(?)pw/y. The fragment could be indicating someone’s name. Both scholars believe that this is an example of Old Uighur writing which was utilized in the area ranging between the 9th through 16th centuries.(5)

(5) E-mail correspondence, Mark Dickens, Peter Zieme, October 14, 2021.

Fig. 13. Material manuscript fragment with visible letters (obverse)

Fig. 14. Material manuscript fragment photographically enhanced (obverse) (Charles A. Stewart)

Fig. 15. Detail from Christian Uyghur fragment So14000, a fragment of the Legend of Paul and Thecla, from the Berlin Turfan Collection, Copyright Fotostelle Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz

Following the photography process, the fragment was carefully placed behind two pieces of polymethyl methacrylate sheets (plexiglass) which was then sealed with strong adhesive tape to prevent exposure to air. This was then covered with dark paper to prevent exposure to light. This fragment and its host, the pipe, raises many questions and possibilities. Some answers can perhaps be revealed with more laboratory analysis. The pipe’s interior residue, if tested in a laboratory, may show that it was used for smoking opium.

The use of metal pipes for smoking opium became widespread by the 17th century in eastern Asia. We cannot be certain, however, of the development of opium paraphernalia in earlier times since it was a taboo subject among Islamic writers and historians. Our first impression is that this pipe comes from the 17th century or later. If so, this coincides with the Chinese fortress that existed approximately a kilometer due west of Area C at Ilibalyk. This site dates between the 17th to 19th centuries when the Chinese Qing dynasty exercised hegemony over this site along the trade route that passed just to the north of both sites for centuries. Opium would also testify to the known period in which this substance was used extensively among the Chinese population, culminating in the nineteenth century Opium Wars. If this dating concerning the pipe is accurate, then the text is probably older than the pipe. The fragment’s fabric (or parchment) might have been used by its owner as kindling that he/she discovered in the area. When the pipe was seen to have a crack, perhaps it was then discarded around the Ilibalyk cemetery.

Fig. 17. Headache Treatment in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu’s Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye
[Imperial Surgery] 1465. MS. No. 3229, Istanbul, Suleymaniye Library, Ayasofya Section

With that said, the pipe may date to an earlier period. The use of opium dates to prehistoric times and was continually used in Central Asia into modern times (Schiff, 186-194; Kritikos,17- 38; Salavert, 1-11). The earliest archaeological evidence of smoking opium comes from the island of Cyprus where a ceramic pipe was excavated in a Bronze Age Phoenician temple. While the historical and archaeological record is not well studied in Islamic contexts, there is sufficient evidence that poppy was cultivated commercially, and opium produced during the Middle Ages in Central Asia (Karageorghis, 125-129; Smith, et. al, Baasher, 233-243). The notable Turkic surgeon Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu suggested the use of opium as a type of anesthesia by the mid-15th century; illustrations in his book may be showing the use of a pipe for both inhaling smoke and skin cauterization (Fig. 17) (Ganidagli, 165-169; Sunger, 10-12).

The style and construction of the Usharal-Ilibalyk pipe is reminiscent of the so-called “opium pipe” discovered by Aurel Stein at the ancient site of So-yang-cheng (near modern Suoyang City, China) (Fig. 18). Stein noted:

Fragment of an iron opium pipe (?). Short curved piece of tubing, broken and split at one end; near the other widened into bowl double the width of stem and finished off (Stein 1921, 1106).

Stein assumed that this artifact came from the same cultural layer as the Tang and Sung Dynasty artifacts that he recovered. If Stein was correct, then it is possible that the pipe and manuscript fragment are, in fact, somewhat contemporary with each other.

This coin (Fig. 19) was discovered during excavations in an area of darkened soil located in Area C, U-13, located south of the funerary chapel in U-12. Excavators revealed it in an area of burning with pottery and animal bone, thus it was found in a seal layer, in situ. The coin has very defined edges and was in good condition. Originally it was covered with a dark greenish-black patina and measured 10 mm in diameter. It was classified as a special find and photographed in situ and levels were taken: 597.102 m. asl, coordinates: 44T 410201 4886986 UTM. This coin appears to be contemporary with the structure in U-12 and the whole site in general. The coin weighed 1.71 g. and was well fired and struck.

Upon later cleaning and examination (Fig. 20), the numismatist expert, P.N. Petrov determined that the coin was a silver dirham from Almalyk dated to 689 A.H./1310 A.D., and in circulation for 7-10 years from the time of minting thus providing a terminus post quem of generally between 1310-1320 AD.(6)

(6)Email correspondence with authors, October 22, 2021.

This provides the first in situ coin found during excavations that can be read and dated. Previous finds have either been on the surface with no verified provenance or have proven unreadable and too corroded. The early 14th century date is the first absolute date for the Christian cemetery at Ilibalyk and corresponds with the radiocarbon dating results from previous seasons (see Chronology section, p 74ff).

This coin will also provide additional information related to Petrov’s hypothesis that Ilibalyk was the site of a regional mint. His thesis is based on the previous coin hordes that have been discovered at the site, specifically the number of unique, single finds:

Since the largest number of the single finds of the silver dirhams under investigation was discovered on the site of Ilibalyk, it was here that the mint for their coinage was located during the early 13th century [Petrov’s emphasis]. This postulate will be valid until a medieval settlement with single finds (not included in a hoard) of exactly this type of coin in significantly larger quantities has been discovered. These singular finds on settlement sites determine the usage of a particular coin in circulation. (Petrov, 2021, 114) (see also Petrov 2014, 61-76).
While this coin does not appear to have been specifically minted at Ilibalyk, if Petrov’s hypothesis is correct, then Ilibalyk’s status as a city and its significant fortifications have a legitimate context. A mint on site would require a secure setting. A mint on site would also show that regionally the city played a role in the political life of the Chagatay khanate.

This coin also provides the first genuine historical context for the Christians of Ilibalyk. The decade that this coin was in circulation was a period (as the case for most of the Chagatay khanate) of political turmoil. The powerful Kaidu (1236-1301) had established the ulus of Ögödeid as suzerain over the Chagataid khanate for the 30 years until his death from battle at the hands of his Yuan cousins at the turn of the 14th century. Dua, son of Baraq, in the Chagataid line was initially Kaidu’s puppet and placed as on the throne of the khanate; but eventually his power grew to the point that the two rulers formed a tentative alliance in holding off Kublai’s domination of the region, particularly embroiling Uighuristan and Zhetisu in a state of war during the entire period of Kaidu’s lifetime (Baumer 2016, History, 240-46). To date, our team at Ilibalyk has not uncovered specific evidence of the effect of this period on the city itself which many textbooks call the Pax Mongolica in reference to the Empire in its entirety. Yet, political and military turmoil was more the rule than the exception for the Chagatay khanate.

Twelve years prior to the striking of our coin, Dua himself in 1298, had captured and killed Kublai’s brother-in-law, the Ongut Christian king, Körgüz. This causes one to pause and wonder what the reaction Ilibalyk’s Christians had to such developments. Upon Kaidu’s death, Dua then exerted a power play to remove Kaidu’s sons through both violence and intrigue, eventually placing Yanchichar (1307-1310) as his own puppet. Dua might have annihilated the Ögödieds had he not died in 1307. This led to further turmoil with a succession struggles by Dua’s sons and other contenders, including the first Muslim khan on the scene, Nalighu, who ruled for a year (1307- 1308) and attempted to force the Chagatay ruling elite to embrace Islam. Eventually, Dua’s son, Kebek took power, which was then handed to his older brother Esen Buqa and then back to Kebek following the former’s death in 1319.

Thus, the decade between 1310-1320 marked a precipitated decline in the region due in large part to the political conflict and continual warfare which resulted in damage to the region economically and agriculturally (Baumer 2016, History, 246). This instability also had a distinct religious element. Ruling factions appeared to divide based on religious affiliation and a battle between Islam and traditional Mongolian Tengrism; sharia and yasa; steppe pastoralism and urban agrarian society (Millward 2009, 261-62). Christians in the region likely favored the more tolerant position of traditional steppe religion and culture, as it provided them a level of religious freedom and because of the status Christianity had been provided to the ruling elite of the previous century, including many of the khan’s Keirait wives beginning with Chinggis’ sons (Weatherford, 2016, 102-116).

Yet, for the next three decades from the time of our coin, the Christians’ position in the region became more and more precarious. The last of Dua’s sons, Tamashirin (r. 1331-1334) converted to Islam, but, he too, was violently opposed and removed by Chagatay traditionalists. Tamashirin was followed by Changshi (r. 1335-37) who ruling from Almalyk probably had the support of Ilibalyk’s Christians since his wife Alma Khatun (see pp. 99-100) was the best-known Nestorian Christian of elite status during this period in Zhetisu (Semirechye) (Baumer 2016, 246). The emotional pendulum took another radical swing in the other direction when Changshi was murdered by his brother Yesün Temür which was immediately followed by the outbreak of plague that certainly struck the Issyk-kul region and may have affected the residents of Ilibalyk, though this is yet to be confirmed.

In 1340, an Ögödied, Ali Sultan, seized power and was responsible for the severe persecution and martyrdoms of 6 people at the Catholic mission in Almalyk (DeWeese 2009, 130-31).7 Since our coin confirms that the funerary chapel and cemetery were in operation at the dawn of this tumultuous period, our further dating evidence provided by radiocarbon (C-14) samples also means the community of Christians at Ilibalyk could have also been put in a very difficult position. As our previous year’s report states (2020 Field Report, p. 74.), evidence of burning may demonstrate that the chapel was destroyed by fire and the latest dating from the graves falls within this period’s window.

Area C continues to yield fine ware pottery fragments on occasion. While the cemetery itself usually has less pottery than in locations of domestic occupation as excavated in 2016; pottery finds in the cemetery are mainly from a scatter of common ware which predominately come from the temper in mudbrick (see Fig. 51, p. 98). Additional pottery from cookware may be indicative of funerary meals held at various gravesides.

However, particularly from excavations in Unit 12 in 2020 inside and in the vicinity of the funerary chapel, fine ware was discovered that included imports from possible locations such as Iran and Syria and/or China (2020 Field Report, 69). This provides evidence for the importance and high status of the structure discovered in U-12, that included not only fine ware dishes (including archaeologically whole vessels); but also, oil lamps with possible Christian iconography as well as an icon lamp or sensor found in the possible altar area of the structure (2020 Field Report, 55-70).

Within Unit 13, due south of U-12 and the funerary chapel, this location yielded less fine ware, although the middens of L-222 and L-223 (still within the boundaries of U-12 and south of the structure) did yield fine ware in the upper levels). Unit 14, on the western boundary of the cemetery, fine ware pieces were discovered, most of which will be detailed in this section.

These two fragments (Figs. 21-22) from a very fine light-blue glazed celadon bowl with intricate underglaze designs were discovered in Unit 14, Locus 266, or the upper layer near the western boundary of the cemetery (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002; Ib_21_C_IV_266_I004).

Fig. 21. Sidewall from a blue celadon bowl

Fig. 22. Fragment with base from a blue celadon bowl

See John of Marignolli’s account in Cathay and the Way Thither, translated by H. Yule (London: Hakluyt Society): vol. 2, pg. 338.

While these particular fragments were found to the northwest of the funerary chapel in U- 12, they come from the exact same bowl as three fragments discovered in 2020 in U-12 found, approximately 25 meters from each other (Fig. 23; see 2020 Field Report, 69,173,175,177). This is verified by the base fragment discovered in 2020 (Ib_20_C_IV_212_I001) co-joined with the base fragment discovered this season in U-14, L-266 (Fig. 24). The intricately inscribed floral design on the inner side of the bowl are a combination of floral patterns and combed swirls prior to firing. The fabric is perfectly white with no inclusions and appears to have utilized kaolin clay. The outer sides of the fragments have the same light-blue glaze, but with no design. Age and wear have created micro cracks on the outer side of the bowl’s surface. Fragment Ib_21_C_IV_266_I004 includes half of a ring base, the outer part has the same glazed coating, but the bottom of the ring is unglazed and has a red tint. This base’s measurements are 4.62 X 4.75 cm in diameter and is 2.22 cm thick, weighing 57.27 g. Three floral petals are visible on the sherd (one complete, the other two partial) with two intersecting combing designs at the petals’ bases. When combined with the base discovered in 2020, the base’s diameter is clearly measured at 5.5 cm, thus the circumference of the entire base was 11 cm.

The other fragment (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002, Fig 21), is a sidewall measuring 5.26 X 4.21 and 1.34 cm thick. This sherd’s light blue glaze is on both sides and micro-cracks can be seen on the outer side. The inner side’s design is in the same style with petals and a circular combing design with a comb of 11 teeth and no micro-cracks are visible in the glaze on the inner surface. This fragment was probably near the bowl’s rim as indicated by its tapered shape and thinner wall.

Fig. 23. Three blue celadon fragments from 2020 dig discovered in U-12, L-212 from the same vessel as fragments found in 2021

Fig. 24. Two sherds from ring base of blue celadon bowl (front and back), sherd on left was discovered in 2021, sherd on right in 2020, separated by 25 m (SE to NW)

Pottery with a gray fabric is a common typology at Ilibalyk. This includes slipped and unslipped forms as well as examples with decorative features, as these two potsherds demonstrate (Figs. 25-26). The potsherd seen on the right (Ib_21_C_IV_273_I001; Fig. 26) has two designs probably made by roller stamping, one a quatrefoil design and the other a piriform with an inner circle at bottom middle of “pear-shape” or possibly representing the pistil of a flower. Between these different shapes are three rivets (conical shaped molded relief adhesions). This sherd was discovered in a sealed layer in the lower level of a sondage (L-273; 596.685 m asl.) attributed possibly to the 11th century during the Karakhanid period (see Locus 273 Sondage and Pottery Analysis section, p. 69ff).

The other potsherd, on the left (Fig. 25), has a banded design a few centimeters below the vessel’s rim with three raised ridges and stamped 9-petaled rosette or star impressions probably on the entire lower half of the vessel. On this sherd, three compete and two partial impressions are visible. This vessel is probably from a more recent period (early 14th century), given the location of the find in Unit 14, L-266 (597.266 m asl.), however, the layer is within the modern plow zone and within the area of the cleared topsoil from the 2017 dig, so exact provenance is uncertain.

Fig. 25. Gray-ware potsherd, U-14, L-266

Fig. 26. Gray-ware potsherd, U-14, L-273

If our estimation on the chronology of these potsherds is correct, then gray-ware pottery was utilized throughout the life of the site at Ilibalyk, however, design variations may be a possible diagnostic indicator in determining a time period. A review of previous finds is needed to see if there is a consistent pattern of these design differences.

Fineware pottery with Cream-Colored Slip, Transparent Glaze, and Painted Underglaze Design

This potsherd (Fig. 27) was discovered in Unit 14, Locus 266, the initial level for the unit and the western boundary of the cemetery. It was discovered in the level of the plowzone (597.377 m asl.) but was only one centimeter higher than the blue glazed celadon ware discovered in the same area. The sherd was a rim from a bowl and measures 2.25 X 2.31 and is 0.49 cm with a well- variegated brown fabric. It is covered with a cream-colored slip that is highly worn on the upper part of the sherd and covered with a transparent glaze. The sherd’s inner side is decorated with a series of painted, reddish-brown lines (possibly iron oxide?) beginning approximately one centimeter below the rim’s lip. One horizontal line, which probably extended around the bowls entire circumference runs parallel to the rim. Four other lines are visible on the sherd underneath the upper line, two running vertically, the other intersecting with the middle line. These lines may form a geometric design that encircled the bowl, or it could be some form of writing or sgraffito.

Fig. 27. Pottery rim (inner and outer sides) from U-14, L-266, painted underglaze design

This pottery type has never been found at the Ilibalyk site and further study is needed to determine other comparisons throughout Central Asia. It can be categorized as decorative fine ware.

Small fragments of very fine porcelain have been discovered during every archaeological expedition at Ilibalyk since 2016 and this year proved no exception. This very small pottery fragment (Fig. 28) with a deep blue glaze on one side and white on the other has a very fine white, kaolin clay fabric which continues to testify to the presence of fine ware pottery imports. This piece is reminiscent of Yuan dynasty blue and white porcelain whose whole forms today are considered quite valuable. This sherd was discovered in Unit 15, Locus 276, the initial level on the furthermost eastern part of the cemetery in Area C that has been excavated so far and in the same vicinity as the high-status grave of Mongolian female in L-290, however, their association cannot be determined.

Fig 28. Fine ware porcelain sidewall fragment, U-15, L-276

This pottery fragment (Ib_21_C_IV_262_I001; 3.04 X 3.42 X 1.34 cm, Fig. 29) was discovered in Unit 13, Locus 262 near the same level as a fragment which is probably from the same vessel (Fig. 30). This dish or bowl has a dark blue glaze with bold turquoise lines on top of

a red, well-variegated fabric with very minor inclusions. This fine dish or plate was probably connected with the funerary chapel (U-12, L-212) as the other discovered sherd from 2020 was found within the structure itself in the possible altar area indicating its high status and value.

Fig 29. Potsherd U-13, L-262, 2021

Fig 30. Potsherd U-12, L-212, 2020

Cowrie Shell

This cowrie shell (Ib_21_C_IV_280_I001, Fig 31 below) was discovered during clearing operations in Unit 14, Locus 280 in the soil due south and immediately next to a child’s skull in this locus. While the grave remained unexcavated (see Unit and Loci Descriptions, pp. 31-32), the shell, (likely an import from the Indian Ocean) was found in the probable location of the child’s upper thoracic/cervical vertebrae. It measured 1.53 X 1.13 X 0.72 cm and is likely from the genus C. moneta.

As its scientific name indicates, such shells were often used as currency throughout Asia and beyond, and particularly within China even as late as the Mongol period (Bin, 1-25).

This is the fourth cowrie shell discovered in the cemetery of Area C and all of them appear to be in conjunction with sub-adult, infant burials. They also appear to have been worn as some sort of necklace as a possible charm (See Field Report, 2018, pp. 39, 60, 79; Ib_18_C_IV_048_I001). An infant’s grave in L-048 had a cowrie shell in the cervical along with a mother-of-pearl (nacre) bead. Two area cowries were discovered in 2019 in Locus 188, also in conjunction with an unexcavated infant’s grave (see 2019 Field Report, pp. 101-102, 219-220; 228-229, 249; Ib_19_C_IV_188_I001/I002).8 All the shells have a drill hole on the dorsal side which provided the shell to be worn around the neck.

Given that these shells have only been discovered in children’s graves, one may speculate that they served as some sort of apotropaic function. Such appears to have been the case across millennia and cultures including Greco-Roman culture during Antiquity (Carroll 2018). A more specific question for the context at Ilibalyk involves their usage among Christians and whether such a practice was widely accepted or something that was frowned upon, as was the case as early as the 4th century at the Synod of Laodicea in Roman Christian context in which adherents were prohibited from wearing amulets and priests were banned from making them, which probably indicates that such practices were widespread at the time and as is testified in the archaeological record (Cline 2019, 354). Given the high infant mortality rate based on the large number infant and child burials (over 50% of all burials excavated to date), the use of amulets to ward off the unknown and mysterious illness that produced such widespread mortality among the children of the community; parents would probably use all manner of perceived protection for their cherished offspring. Also, the depth of Turko-Mongolian Christian theology during the period and the amount of syncretism in the Christian community is still one of scholarly debate (Baumer 2016, Church of the East, 187-194).

Three iron objects and their fragments were discovered during 2021 excavations. Iron fragments in and around the site have been revealed regularly over the course of excavations at Ilibalyk, some of which have deteriorated beyond recognition. In a few cases, one or two arrow heads have been found, but this has been rare. This may be attributed to the fact that most of our excavations have been in the cemetery. No weapons of any sort have ever been found as grave goods within the cemetery. Most of the metal objects (including coins) discovered have been via metal detecting as surface finds with no specific provenance. Major exceptions include a metal cross (ID: Ib_19_C_IV_001_I025_50; see 2019 Field Report, p. 228, 301, 318) discovered in 2019 which is now known to be in association with Locus 185 where a kayrak (L-234, ID: Ib_20_С_IV_234) was discovered and part of the funerary chapel structure in U-12 (see 2020 report, p. 13 20-21 52); and, the following year (2020) a metal icon lamp or thurible was discovered within the funerary chapel’s possible altar room (ID: Ib_20_С_IV_212_I005, see 2020 Field Report, pp. 53-54, 128). The 2021 excavations revealed 3 metal items of significance which are detailed below.

why the fragment was at the bottom of a posthole. A scan with a metal detector in the area found no other metal objects.

The initial level of the cleared soil of U-13 in which L-273 is located ranged from 597.19 to
597.10 m. asl. based on the undulation of the natural terrain. We have interpreted this range of level as the level of occupation for the entire area (see 2020 Field Report, pp. 74-76). It is also contemporary with the structure (funerary chapel) of U-12 in Area C. Thus, it seems logical that this area of cultural material scattered on this level was contemporary with the chapel.

The largest amount of ceramic and animal bones were discovered within the next 25-30 cm below the cleared surface (169 pottery fragments and 157 animal bone fragments) and continued to a somewhat lesser extent to 40 cm below the cleared surface (24 pottery fragments/ 99 animal bones). At the 25-30 cm mark the so-called “detrital layer” was identified. As we have written previously, this layer is a 1 to 3 cm layer characterized by a darker brown, crumbly soil with calcium aggregates. This layer is assumed to have been a ground surface that was once exposed to the sunlight and covered with plant life. Since cultural material was found below this “detrital layer” it might be assumed that the layer was caused by later cultivation or tillage, or perhaps some natural event that rapidly covered the soil, such as a flood. Since this area lies between two small streams that flank the cemetery to the east and west, such an interpretation is feasible.

Since we have observed grave shafts in the cemetery that cut into this “detrital” surface, we are assuming that the interments at the cemetery took place following a phase of organic growth that may have existed on top of our just below the detrial layer. However, since there was still a significant amount of cultural material just under the detrital layer that extended an additional 10 cm below the cleared surface (24 pottery fragments)..We interpret the layer below the so-called detrital layer as indicating an earlier period, most probably before 1250 AD, and prior to the initial interments of the cemetery as we have revealed it to date.

Common ware constituted most of the total finds classified as Type1-d (50%), defined as common ware pottery with a well-variegated red fabric and a white or beige slip. Type 1-d was found evenly throughout all levels, which seems to indicate that this pottery type was utilized during the entire period of occupation. Most of the Type 1-d potsherds appear to be from water containers, which, in some cases, included vessels with a hole-spout located near the base of the vessel. Although Ilibalyk is in a rather fertile area between two tributaries of the Osek River, the naturally dry climate and urban settlement would still necessitate water storage and transportation. Thus, these types of water-bearing vessels would be both common and necessary. The presence of this kind of ceramics, across almost five centuries of occupation, means that they cannot be used to diagnose chronology with any specificity.

Cookware made up 11 % of all pottery fragments in the locus. These potsherds are characterized by medium variegation having many inclusions (especially mica and quartz particles) with no decoration, and often charred on the exterior surface of the sherd. Only nine total sherds were glazed ware and four of those were fragments from the same, green-glazed lamp found at 40 cm below the cleared surface of the current ground level, which we identified as belonging to the early 14th-century occupational surface. The other two glazed sherds belonged to a faded blue glaze bowl found in at the upper section of the sondage (0-25 cmbs) and light green sherds near the same level as the above-mentioned lamp.

Few diagnostic potsherds were discovered (rims, bases, handles, etc.) except for some bases of water-bearing vessels or other utilitarian containers; moreover, no diagnostic fragments appeared above the 30 cmbs mark during our excavations. So far, these fragments provide no additional insight as to precise dating.

The ceramic sherds within L-273 were generally uniform, except in two circumstances. First, no pottery with gray fabric was detected below the 60 cm mark. In fact, this pottery made with gray clay constituted the highest percentage (25%) of the pottery down to the 40 cm mark, below the cleared surface, and was located just below the red fabric pottery, mostly with white slip as described above, between the 40 to 60 cm mark. Red fabric pottery made up most of the pottery (44%) found at the upper level which we interpret as the early 14th century level, or the occupational surface of the cemetery and funerary chapel.

Fig. 44. Gray-fabric pottery with décor.

Therefore, it may be accurate to say that gray fabric pottery without significant decoration on the outer surfaces and sidewalls was more characteristic of 14th-century common ware at Ilibalyk than during the previous centuries and may not have been used at all during the earliest stages of the settlement.

A second unique characteristic of the pottery within L-273, is the appearance of Type 5g which is characterized by a light-brown fabric and many quartz and mica inclusions (Fig. 45). This type has no slip; however, it has been burnished along the inner lip and rim. Three sherds from separate closed-mouthed vessels of this type were found at or below the 60 cm mark. Two other potsherds were also discovered at this lower level, classified as Type 5a with a well-variegated brown fabric with no slip, and had T-shaped rims from two separate vessels. All the sherds appear to come from bowls with thin sidewalls and could be characterized as table ware. These sherds are unique based on their burnishing (which is not found on any other pottery fragments throughout the locus) and forms, which are small-sized bowls with T-shaped or everted rims. None of them have a slip or glaze. It appears that these fragments indicate a type and/or form not found in the upper cultural layers and may indicate a 10th or 11th century typology among the common ware at Ilibalyk. Only further examination and comparison with other sites can verify this and the other hypotheses mentioned above.

Chronological Insights for the Christian Cemetery at Ilibalyk

Despite the discovery of five gravestones with written inscriptions at Ilibalyk, none of these stones have provided a specific date. One stone states that Petros the priest died during the “year of the monkey” based on the 12-year animal cycle of the Turkic and Asian calendars (Baumer, Church of the East, 2016, 286). While this limits the number of possible dates across a 150-year history, it provides nothing of an exact date such as is found across the entire corpus of other Zhetisu gravestones which often state the year of death based on the Seleucid calendar (Gilbert forthcoming; Dickens 2020, Echoes, 25-38; Zhumagulov 2014).

Due to an increasing number of radiocarbon (C-14) results obtained over the course of this archaeological expedition’s six seasons together along with the recent absolute date provided by the silver coin discovered in Unit 13, Locus 270 (see Cultural Material Section, pp. 56-58); a better understanding of chronology for the Christian cemetery in Area C has emerged. Even prior to archaeological excavations, the general date range for the Ilibalyk site was known thanks to the coin hoards and individual finds that have been referred to many times in our subsequent reports (see also Petrov, et.al. 2014). The five-hundred-year span between the 10th through the beginning of the 14th century has been the basic chronology of the site with the city’s height of flourishing during the 13th and 14th centuries, particularly during the Chagatay khanate period (1250-1350).

Since 2016, seven C-14 samples have been taken. One sample was taken in Field III, Unit 1 in 2016 from a wood carbon sample at the bottom of a large and deep midden near a small medieval structure. The remaining samples come from Area C: L-028 (U-3, 2018, tested in 2020); L-125 (U-7B, 2019, tested in 2021); L-089 (U-7B, 2019, tested in 2021); L-086 (U-7C, 2019, tested in 2020); L-186 (U-9C, 2019, tested in 2020); and L-230 (U-12, 2020, tested in 2021). This section provides a summary of the context and results of each sample from Area C and then, in conjunction with the absolute dating from the coin in L-270, some more specific dating hypotheses will be proposed. All the dating reports, except the 2016 results from Field III, are contained in Appendix G, Radiocarbon Analysis Report pp. 245ff).

The C-14 results obtained in the abovementioned Field III, now designated U-1 (Test Trench 11 in 2016) came prior to the discovery of the graves in Area C in 2018. The excavation in Field III revealed a large midden or storage pit 1.99 m deep containing potsherds, a significant amount of animal bone, and ash. At one point this pit may have been used for storage but was likely just a place for burning refuse in conjunction with a small structure (then designated Units 12, 16, and 19) excavated approximately 30 m to the north in an area with a slight rise in the terrain. This mudbrick structure’s function was never determined with certainty, though it appeared residential simply based on the cultural material. No clear structure was discerned. It did not seem to be in direct association with the cemetery that was later discovered during the field survey undertaken in 2016. The C-14 sample was taken near the base of the pit mentioned above and was from a small piece of wood charcoal, presumably form the occupants of the structure, which lies approximately 610 m to the southwest of Area C (and 200 m east of the Karasu River in the northern rabad area. The sample was analyzed at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies of the University of Georgia in their mass spectrometry laboratory (UGAMS) in the USA. (See 2016 Field Report, 244, 270; 2019 Field Report, 239).

As previously reported, the radiocarbon analysis indicated a calendar range between 1130 and 1190 AD; but its recalibrated dates indicated a 98% probability that the charcoal dates between 1207 to 1279 AD. The calibrated date range (with a 68% probability) was between 1218 AD-1270 AD, placing the sample clearly within the 13th century. This confirmed what both the numismatic material and basic range of the pottery had already established pertaining to the site’s height of occupation.

Five of the 6 remaining samples all come from within the cemetery as revealed in Area C and, in fact, from specific graves. The most recent results were obtained from human bone samples (L- 125, L-089), while the others came from charcoal found within the graves except for L- 028 which was an ash pit discovered directly on top of mudbricks from grave L-190. The sample from L-230 was from a piece of burned wood discovered at the 597.300 m asl within the funerary chapel first revealed in 2020. Four of the samples (L-028, L-086, L-186,
L-230) were processed at the University of Arizona (USA) Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, the other two (L-125, L-089) were processed at Vilnius Radiocarbon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory of the Center for Physical Sciences and Technology in Vilnius, Lithuania.

The following summary provides details on the collected samples in Area C, their specific radiocarbon age BP (before present, 1950 AD), the standard deviation +/-, and their calibrated date ranges.

Locus 028 (Unit 3): This sample was taken during excavations in 2018 at a level of 596.857 m. asl. The locus identified an area of burning that was just on top of the surface of bricks from the tomb in L-190, possibly an older female that was fully excavated in 2019 (see 2018 Field Report, 26-28; 2019 Field Report 199-200).

The locus is near the southern border of the identified boundaries of the cemetery and lies 20.5 m northeast of the funerary chapel (L-230). This sample was wood charcoal from this area of burning and had a carbon yield of 71.7% providing 1.83 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -24 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 822 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 30 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1098 to 1158 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1192 to 1258 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1164 to 1264 AD.

Locus 086 (Unit 7C): This sample of wood charcoal was taken just above the rib cage on the left (or northern side) of the skeleton in the grave of Locus 086 during excavations in 2019 at a level of 597.018 m. asl. (2019 Field Report, 50-52, 56, 162). The grave was located amongst the highest concentration of adult graves in the north-central section of Area C, just 2.3 m southeast of L-089 and 5.7 m southeast of L-125. The sample had a carbon yield of 55% providing 1.23 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -26.1% parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 662 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 19 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1269 to 1307 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1286 to 1383 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1281 to 1389 AD.

Locus 186 (Unit 9C): This sample, also wood charcoal, was obtained from a child or infant’s grave located in the southeast section of the cemetery of Area C and approximately 5 m due west of abovementioned L-028/L-190 at a level of 597.294 m asl., 27.6 cm above the latter sample. The grave had been washed out, by possible snowmelt or flooding and the child’s skull was about all that remained; alternatively, it was disturbed by some other unknown intervention. The grave was in proximity and near the same level as two other infant graves (L-183 and L-200). Because of the later disturbance, it is possible that the charcoal had been introduced to the grave’s context at a later date. The sample had a carbon yield of 69.1% providing 1.61 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -26 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 661 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 27 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1262 to 1316 AD. However, when reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1285 to 1385 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1278
to 1392 AD.

Locus 089 (Unit 7B): This sample was taken from the human skeletal remains of the high- status adult female grave excavated in the north-central section of Area C (2019 Field Report, 43- 45, 168-169, 209-221; Stewart 2020; Gilbert, Stewart 2023?). It was located 2.3 m northwest of L-086 and 2 m southeast of L-125. All three of these graves are in the same general vicinity of Unit 7. The remains rested at a level of 597.100 m. asl. The sample’s carbon yield and milligrams tested were not provided by the Vilnius lab. The C-14 date of 590 years before the year 1950, with an error for margin of +/- 26 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1334 to 1386 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v. 4.4.2) method, more probable date ranges of 1321 to 1402 AD (68.3% probability), or a 95.4% probability between 1304 to 1409 AD. It should also be noted that more than a 50% probability is possible for the ranges between 1321 and 1358 AD.

Locus 125 (Unit 7B): This sample was also a human bone sample taken from the skeletal remains of an adult male (?) in this grave located in the far north-central section of Area C (2019 Field Report, 45-46; 179-180). This grave is located on the northernmost boundary of the cemetery and northwest of L-089 by 2 m and L-086 by 5.7 m. The remains rested at a level of 596.750 m. asl. The sample’s carbon yield and milligrams tested were not provided by the Vilnius lab. The C- 14 date of 582 years before the year 1950, with an error for margin of +/- 27 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1341 to 1395 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration

(OxCal v. 4.4.2) method, more probable date ranges of 1323 to 1404 AD (68.3% probability), or a 95.4% probability between 1305 to 1415 AD. It should also be noted that more than a 50% probability is possible for the ranges between 1323 and 1357 AD.

Locus 230 (Unit 12): This wood charcoal sample was taken in the locus designated as the level of the main hall (Room 1) for what is interpreted as a funerary chapel, the structure found due south of the Christian cemetery of Area C. (see 2020 Field Report, 6, 12-13; 20-21, 44) and close to the vicinity Locus 233, which was identified as a burnt root from a tree which had the same diameter of a possible stump located on the eastern side of Room 1 (2020 Field Report, 21, 107). The sample was taken at a level of 597.300 m. asl and had a carbon yield of 63.2% providing
0.62 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as
-24.7 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 506 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 43 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1401 to 1487 AD. However, when reassessed using the Oxford

Fig. 47. Graphic representation of C-14 date ranges from the portion of the cemetery in Area C
(Steven Gilbert)

Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1403 to 1444 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1321 to 1459 AD. These results, as stated by the University of Arizona AMS Laboratory, had a measurement uncertainty higher than normal.9 An attempt was made to improve the precision by running additional tests of the sample. These results were inconclusive, thus the uncertainty increased rather than narrowed the results. A spike in the calibration indicates a 15th century date in the results. The implications and interpretation of these result will follow below.

9) Email correspondence from Dr. Greg Hodgins, March 31, 2021.

The above timeline graphic (Fig. 47) provides a visual of the radiocarbon samples taken from the cemetery and funerary chapel that lies due south of the graves at the site and allows us to derive certain generalized conclusions about the chronology for the Christian community of Ilibalyk. First, the C-14 readings clearly affirm what the other cultural material (both coins and pottery) has signified– the portion of the cemetery excavated in Area C was in use predominately between the 12th through 14th centuries, and perhaps, more specifically, the Christian cemetery interments occured during the latter part of the 12th through the first half of the 14th centuries. While C-14 data suggests a possible extension into the early 15th century, numismatic data on the overall site has not surpassed the year 1340 (see 2019 Field report, 238-241). Thus, it is our current hypothesis that the relative dates that extend into the late 14th and early 15th century are less likely to be within the percentages of the relative dates that radiocarbon analysis provides.

The earliest date based on the laboratory analyses was from the ash pit (L-028) found on top of the mudbricks of the grave in L-190, with the latest possible date being 1264 AD. Thus, it is assumed that this grave is probably from the 13th century. Other graves discovered at this level and even lower (L-190, L-211, L-193) presumably come from this same period. One variable that should be kept in mind, however, is the fact that the carbon sample came from wood charcoal. The date would register from the period of the wood’s cutting (or death), which conceivably could predate the interment. Yet, the current hypothesis is that the burn pit on top of the mudbrick of the tomb came from funerary meal preparation that would have happened at the time of interment, thus the nearby wood collected for the fire would not be significantly older than when it was used as fuel.

The results from L-028 suggest that this portion of the currently revealed cemetery was in use by the mid-12th century, if not earlier. It is important to note that no kayraks affiliated with the Church of the East in the region have been discovered that have been inscribed or attributed to a period prior to the year 1200 (find Dickens 2020 Echoes, 30).10 If that reflects the historical reality, then the adult grave interments in Unit 3 of Area C are less likely to predate 1200 AD, although other identified Christian burials, such as those in Tik-Turmas and Taraz have been attributed to the 8th or 9th centuries, yet with no discoveries of kayraks from that period (Baipakov and Ternovaya 2018, 11-15). The unfortunate reality thus far concerning the gravestones of Ilibalyk is that—unlike stones from the Chu Valley and Almalyk—no absolute dates were inscribed on the stones that have been recovered so far. (11)

The data also suggests that the three graves 36 m to the northwest of the interments in Unit 3, specifically the adult graves in Unit 7, came at a later period, with L-086 interred earlier (circa 1285 or later) than L-089 (circa 1321 or later) and L-125 (circa 1323 or later). This may even indicate that interments were buried in an orderly sequence with burials placed further north as time progressed. This hypothesis could be suspect when considering that L-089 and L-125 came from the skeletal remains themselves, while the L-086 was from wood charcoal. A wood sample has the possibility of dating earlier if the wood was cut significantly prior to the burial. However, when viewed in conjunction with the adult burials in Unit 3, the small amount of evidence still suggests that burials further north from the southern boundary of the cemetery were from the first half of the 14th century, while adult burials further south were older, and specifically, in Unit 3, at the southern boundary of the cemetery were interred in the second half of the 13th century or sooner.

10) During the initial period of translation of many of the stones found in the late 19th/early 20th century, two stones were attributed to an earlier period, however, Dickens has clearly shown these translations were incorrect.
11) Of the five stones discovered with inscriptions, the Petros Stone states Petros the priest died in the “year of the monkey” based on the 12-year animal cycle but does not provide a Seleucid date as many stones in southern Zhetisu.

The evidence for the funerary chapel and its ecclesiastical function contemporary with the cemetery seems well established based on evidence of both context, pottery, and other cultural material discovered in situ within the structure as well as based upon the coin find from this season which provided an absolute date of 1310. As we have established, this coin had a 10-year circulation, which provides a terminus post quem of 1320 at the occupational surface for the structure in Unit 12, the funerary chapel. The latest kayrak dated at Almayk comes from 1369 (Gilman 1999, 196). While individual Christians are referred to in Central Asia the 15th century in textual sources, no significant communities or settlements are referred to that late (Moffett 1998, 487-488). Thus, it is possible that the wood charcoal sample taken from L-230 in the main hall of the structure came from a source that likely existed after the structure was either destroyed or fell into disuse.

Our excavations suggest such a scenario. As reported in 2020 (2020 Field Report, 21) a large 30 cm-diameter circular feature was found at the floor level within the funerary chapel on the eastern side of the hall (Room 1) designated Locus 233. The feature was initially detected at a level of 597.351 m asl and proceeded downward to a level of 596.963 m. asl. It was filled with ash, but at the base of the hole, charred tree roots were discovered. At the time, excavators interpreted this discovery as a tree that had grown up (thus the tree’s trunk was the circular feature) within the structure at a date following its disuse and/or collapse. The charcoal sample discovered in L-230 was found at the 597.300 m. asl. level approximately 3 to 5 meters from the feature in L- 233. As our report indicated, the sunken floor of the chapel showed evidence of burning, including evidence from Ground Penetrating Radar scans taken in 2017 at this exact location. One interpretation for this burning is that it happened in conjunction with the structure’s destruction. However, another possible scenario is that the structure was abandoned, collapsed by earthquake or neglect following abandonment in the latter half of the 14th century. Subsequently a tree grew within the rubble of the exposed structure, later burned and our sample was taken from a tree that lived during the 15th century at the site following its abandonment. While all quite speculative and requiring an adjustment on our initial thoughts that the funerary chapel was destroyed by fire, the data can support what the C-14 sample in L-230 provides. Of course, the scenario that the wood sample discovered still stands and was taken from the structure since the results allow for a date as early as 1321, contemporary with the numismatic evidence as well. It is also possible that the Christians continued to live as late as the Timurid period (1370 and beyond), with a small population in which coinage was scarce and people lived by subsistence.

While still lacking clear chronology, a more detailed picture is emerging related to the period of usage for that portion of the Christian cemetery that has been excavated, based on the radiocarbon and numismatic evidence. The cemetery existed possibly as early as 1200 AD and most certainly no later than 1364 AD. More research and data is necessary before burials based on location and/or type can be placed along a relatively certain timeline. Further excavation will also be necessary to see if chronological variations can be discerned in Area B, where one burial has been discovered along with several kayraks. The funerary chapel, based on levels and the absolute dating from a nearby coin was probably not erected prior to the 14th century and after the cemetery for the Christians of Ilibalyk had already been established. This may indicate that the chapel had earlier phases (though such evidence is currently lacking, yet as our schematic drawing in the Introduction suggests a 2-phase scenario), another chapel may be located elsewhere, or the use of a chapel may have been a newly established ritual practice for the Ilibalyk Christian community at that time. The final days of the chapel are still too problematic to adequately speculate based on the C-14 data and the wide variety of possible scenarios such data evokes. So far, the C-14 evidence provides no scenario in which burials occurred any later than 1415.

Dental Forensic Data from 2021 Skeletal Remains

Dr. Andy B.Y. LEE, DDS, MSD
Chosun University Dental School, Republic of Korea
Chief Researcher, Bridge Medical Association Department of Humanities and Social Medicine, Dental Service International Department of Humanities and Social Dentistry, The Research Institute for the Languages and Cultural studies of Central Asia

During the excavations at Usharal-Ilibalyk, I participated in this project by performing dental observation and analysis of skeletal remains together with the excavation process.
Since teeth are the strongest structures in the human body, dental age estimation is regarded more reliable as it is less variable in postmortem. Through the relatively well-preserved remains from the remains found at Ilibalyk, estimations were possible for the oral and dental condition from the human skulls with teeth and bones such as facial, jaw and alveolar bones. Also, estimation concerning the approximate ages through the degree of tooth wear, or attrition was obtained by two methods. One is age estimation through analysis of permanent molars, using the Average Stage of Attrition (ASA) as developed by Chunbiao Li and Guijin Ji. (1995); the other is an age estimation method using functional pattern and the role of dental wear by C. Owen Lovejoy (1985).

The tooth maturities of ancient, medieval, and pre-modern people are very different from those of today. Compared to current human teeth, pre-modern teeth show a more severe degree of tooth wear. In other words, if one applies research performed on people from the past to those of the present generation, age estimates are usually quite advanced, exceeding the estimate.

Therefore, besides examining the degree of tooth ware, other examinations such as radiography and biological (DNA) examination along with anthropological and archaeological research provide additional information to gain a more accurate estimation of the age-at-death. More accurate age estimation can be determined by measuring the degree of attrition, secondary dentine formation, periodontal change, cementum apposition, transparency and root resorption of the teeth, as well as oro-maxillo-facial bone conditions of the remains. Further examinations such as paleopathological and radiologic analysis, e.g., conventional, and cephalometric X-ray analyses and Computerized Tomography (CT) scanning investigation for dental details and oral structures of mummies are required to gain more information about dentition and the jaw from human remains. Also, the chemical analysis of teeth enamel and dental calculus on tooth surfaces, such as carbon isotopes found in bones and teeth is needed to gain information concerning diet from food the individual might have consumed. We also believe that expert assistance and advice concerning ancient food and nutrition is necessary.
In this archaeological excavation, many difficulties limit the ability to measure the degree of tooth wear due to the conditions of the preserved remains, limited time, and manpower. In the future, further research through forensic medicine and dentistry, coupled with anthropological and archaeological research on the remains from Ilibalyk needs be conducted in order to gain a more accurate estimate of the age of each individual skeleton. The following dental findings focus on the remains which were relatively well preserved, such as L-268, L-289 and L-290.

Summary of Results
Excavated Human Remains: Good preservation condition of skulls and jaws

L-268 (Adult Female) Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 45~55 years old.

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 34.80 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 30~35 years old.

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 30.08 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 24~30 years old

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 40~50 years old.
L-111A (Adult Female) Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: ~ 40 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 35~40 years old.

Sources:
Chunbiao Li and Guijin Ji (1995) “Age Estimation from the Permanent Molar in Northeast China by the Method of Average Stage of Attrition.” Forensic Science International 75: 189-196.

C. Owen Lovejoy (1985) “Dental Wear in the Libben Population: Its Functional Pattern and Role in the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68:47-56.

Analytical Data:
L-268 (Adult Female) Estimated age-at-death: Approximately 53.48 years old.

Maxilla - Rt.15,14,13,12,11 and Lt.21,23,27 tooth

Mandible - Rt.48,47,44,43 and Lt.32,33,34,35,36,38 tooth

2. Severe tooth wear on Mx. Rt.15,14,13,12,11 and Lt.21,23 and Md. Rt. 44,43 and Lt.32,33 tooth. Particularly periapical lesions caused by severe attrition of Mx.Rt. teeth 13.12.11 and tooth Lt.23.

- The primary cause of this tooth wear might be as a result of chewing a coarse, fibrous diet throughout her life, which made produced even more abrasion through the introduction of inorganic particles (e.g. sand from soil, rock fragments from flint, harvesting and food processing tools, etc.) particularly in bread, a staple food.

- Hard minerals in milled grains abraded the surface of her teeth and gums, exposing the bone below and making the roots loose. Similar wear-and-tear is found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies who ate milled grains. This serves as sandpaper acting upon her teeth. Had she lived an additional 5 to 10 years, she certainly would have lost more teeth.

- Her dental problem shows the results of eating an agricultural diet instead of a huntergatherer diet. She might have eaten processed food, whereas hunter-gatherers were depending on meat and berries: the processing added a bigger variety of agricultural food impacted the quality of her teeth.

- High-wear rates and low caries, and a high prevalence, in this case, of periodontal disease accords well Egyptian mummies’ cases. The diet of ancient Egyptians, particularly bread, reportedly had excessive sand content, whose silica is thought to have been a major cause of dental attrition.

- Almost a complete loss of crown structure often occurred at a faster rate than the odontoblasts were able to lay down secondary dentine, resulting in pulpal exposure, necrosis of the pulp and subsequent apical infection. Multiple periapical abscesses formation of several teeth was indicative of how severe the problem of tooth wear was in this case.

3. Periodontal disease, particularly severe periodontal bone resorption on Md. Lt. tooth
36 and tooth 38.

- The loss of the periodontium has always a quite common disease, as is evidenced by the discovery of Stone Age skulls and the examination of Egyptian mummies.

- Although the loss of the periodontal supporting tissue almost extended to the middle half of the root, her teeth appeared to be clean because her abrasive diet contributed significantly to a process of self-cleaning.

4. Dental caries on distal proximal of Md. Lt. tooth 36 (Md. Lt. First Molar) which seems to be already have extended to the dental pulp.

5. Due to her poor dental health, she might have experienced pain when eating hot or tough foods.

6. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I

- The fully erupted and well aligned teeth may represent a morphologic adaptation of the arches to the muscular activity associated with grinding tough foods. - However, several inclined teeth and over-erupted teeth are indicated by a longer duration from loss of opposing and adjacent teeth at an early age.

6. Some evidence of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disease e.g. morphologic change of condyles, asymmetric lower jaw and face, canting of occlusal plane

- Loss of vertical dimension from excessive tooth wear and abnormal chewing from asymmetric tooth loss might have brought altered mechanical function of the joint, resulting in a Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) problem.

7. Estimation of age-at-death by visual examination for tooth wear in adults:
L268 (Adult Female)
Age: Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 45~55 years old.

L-289 Dental Analysis

1. Dental cavities on Mx. Rt. teeth 16, 17, 18 and Md. Rt. tooth 48

2. Moderate wear of both anterior and posterior teeth

More wear on both canine teeth with labial bony fenestration may suggest something about her work or habits, e.g. chewing hard food or materials.

3. Severe periodontal disease.

Particularly heavy dental calculus deposition on posterior teeth. Many anterior teeth had more alveolar bone loss than posterior teeth extruded. Extrusion of teeth 16 and 26.

4. Loss of teeth 36, 41, 42, 46 and 47, but less bony atrophy may indicate a dental cause of loss instead of periodontal cause

5. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I

6. There is some evidence of the temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) disease e.g. asymmetric morphologic change of condyles

7. Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L289 (Adult Female)

Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 34.90 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 30~35 years old.

1. No visible dental caries in remaining teeth

2. More wear of anterior teeth enamel (U and L) but slight wear of posterior teeth

This unusual wear pattern might indicate something about her work or habits. For example, upper
and lower anterior teeth with more attrition might suggest some habits like chewing leather to
soften it or holding twine during basket weaving.

3. No severe periodontal disease.
4. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I
5. Less evidence of temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) disease
6. Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-290 (Adult Female)

Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 30.08 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 24~30 years old.

Note: The remaining three sets of remains reported below were only examined via photographic
evidence. Examination to be conducted in a laboratory later and reported subsequently

Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-277 (Adult Male)

Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 40~50 years old.

L111A (Adult Female), Estimated age-at-death: Over 40

Note: Unclear occlusal surfaces of the teeth due to dust and mud

Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-111A (Adult Female)
Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: approximately 40 years old
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 35~40 years

Note: Unclear occlusal surfaces of the teeth with dust and mud.

L-278 (Sub-adult)
Estimated age-at-death by visual examination: approximately 2-4 years old

Abbass MMS, D. Rady, I.A. Radwan, et al.(2019) “Prevalence of Periodontal Diseases and Its Correlation with Different Risk Factors among an Adult Egyptian Population: A Cross-
Sectional Study.” [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] F1000Research 2019, 8:1740 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.20310.1)

Cameriere, Roberto, Luigi Ferrante, Maria Giovanna Belcastro, Benedetta Bonfiglioli,
Elisa Rastelli, Mariano Cingolani. (2007) “Age Estimation by Pulp/Tooth Ratio in Canines by Peri-Apical X-Rays.” J Forensic Sci, Vol. 52, No. 1.

Fidalgo, Daniel, Veronica Wesolowski, Mark Hubbe. (2021) “The Impact of Dental Wear on the Analysis of Morphological Affinities based on Dental Non-metric Traits. Dental Anthropology, Vol. 34, Issue 02:44-56.

Kvall, Sigrid I., Kristin M. Kolltveit, Ib. O. Thomsenb, Tore Solheima. (1995) “Age Estimation of Adults from Dental Radiographs. Forensic Science International 74:175-185.

Lanfranco, Luis Pezo and Sabine Eggers. (2012) “Caries through Time: An Anthropological Overview.” Open access peer-reviewed chapter, www.intechopen.com.

Lee, Sang Eon, Sang-Hoon Lee, Jeong-Yun Lee, Hee-Kyung Park, Young-Ku Kim. (2008) “Age Estimation of Korean Children based on Dental Maturity. Forensic Science International. 178:125–131.

Lewis, Amitha J. and Chandni Sreekumar, N. Srikant, Karen Boaz, K.P. Nandita, Nidhi Manaktala, Shweta Yellapurkar. (2021) “Estimation of Age by Evaluating the Occlusal Tooth Wear in Molars: A Study on Dakshina

Kannada Population.” Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry. 13:429–440.

CONCLUSION

Because our excavations are ongoing, every season provides new data that changes our “working hypotheses” and understanding of this site. This section provides some of our general conclusions and tentative interpretations, they should not be considered the “final word” and are always open to revision based on the acquisition of new data during potentially future excavations or outside evidence which could impact our understanding of the overall context.

Despite the continued restrictions and limitations in manpower and personnel imposed by the global Covid pandemic, the 2021 excavation at Usharal-Ilibalyk proved quite successful. The dig plan objectives, as detailed in the introduction of the report, were mostly investigated, and significant progress has been made in advancing our knowledge and understanding of the site as well as the greater context of the community of Christians in this area during the late Middle Ages. When combined with our growing knowledge of other sites in Xinjiang (China) and the Chu River Valley (Kyrgyzstan) a clearer regional picture is emerging. The following observations and conclusions highlight what has been learned.

Cemetery Boundaries More Clearly Defined

Excavations in Units 13, 14, and 15 have clarified the scope of the Christian cemetery. The western boundary is now completely delineated. It spans approximately 60 m in a south-to-north direction. The southernmost grave on the western boundary is characterized by an unexcavated grave indicated by an adult tibia and possible metacarpal discovered in the Unit 10 test trench (L- 210) in 2019 (see 2019 Field Report, 114) which lies due west of the structure (funerary chapel) in Unit 12. The westernmost grave was L-277, an adult male grave located at approximately 5 m from the western baulk in Unit 14. It is likely that more graves are be found due north of the graves excavated in this unit but not any further west. The excavations of 2017, 25 m north/northwest of U-14 inadvertently now provides an understanding of the northwest corner of the cemetery. At the time, of those excavations (then labeled Unit 3, but now dubbed Unit 3-2017, see 2017 Field Report, 45.), no graves were discovered. Rather, a midden and other indiscernible soil features were exposed. It is now evident that excavations in this unit were just beyond the western boundary of the cemetery which was missed by only a few meters at the time.

The southern boundary has also been clarified. Within the 22.5 x 32 m Unit 12—whose predominate feature is the funerary chapel structure discovered in 2020— only one infant grave was discovered which was approximately 4 m south of Unit 3. L-210, as mentioned above, is the southernmost human remains, which may indicate more interments slightly parallel to the structure. However, excavations in the newly exposed Unit 13 demonstrate that no graves exist south of the structure. In fact, this area appears to have served as a place of burning and rubbish dumping. The presence of small clusters of animal bone may suggest food preparation occurred.

The cemetery’s eastern boundary appears to be continuing in the direction of Area B. Discovery of graves, both infant and adult, in newly excavated Unit 15 (L-278, L-289, L-290, L- 291, L-293), while perhaps not as dense as those found in Units 5, 7, and 8, are possibly indicating that the cemetery of Area C will connect with Area B, which seems logical given the burial discovered there (Unit 6, L-008) the previous season and as indicated by the 8 kayraks found in Area B. In addition, the northern boundary’s placement, while less certain than that of the western and southern boundaries, probably extends no further than 60 m to the north of the southern boundary. This, again, explains why excavations in 2017 failed to locate graves since most excavations in Area B that year (U-5, U-4 and possibly U-2) were north of this mark. Excavations

in of U-1 and U-3 of Area B failed to locate graves probably because they failed to extend deep enough.

Fig. 49. Extent of known cemetery boundaries

One of the excavation objectives for 2021 involved clarifying the area around the structure interpreted as a funerary chapel in Unit 12. While several questions remain, and evidence for an earlier construction phase remains unclear, the pathway extending toward the southern entrance of the structure (L-253) appears not to have been a wall. In fact, a possible southern entrance threshold appeared to be the only place where adobe mudbricks or blocks were detected, thus the almost perpendicular feature labeled L-253 in 2020 was likely a footpath leading to the southern entrance.

On the north side of the structure, the features L-257 and L-258, revealed in 2020, were initially thought to be graves given their apparent east/west orientation and similar measurements (L-257, 2.10 x 0.80 m, L-258, 2.30 x 0.70 m). However, a brief excavation at these loci revealed that neither of the features were graves. The current interpretation is that these features marked a delineation between the cemetery to the north and the funerary chapel’s territory. They may have been part of a gate construction and/or entryway into the cemetery itself in which the deceased was escorted from the chapel to the grave. The entire section designated L-185 which revealed a metal cross in 2019 [Ib_19_C_IV_001_I025_50, see 2019 Field Report, 228] and a kayrak (L- 234; Ib_20_С_IV_234, 2020 Field Report, 52) in 2020 remains somewhat of an enigma. The main reason is that this area is obstructed by a rather large tree which currently cannot be removed to keep environmental impact to a minimum. Currently, it appears that L-185 is a part of the larger chapel ground and perhaps enclosed by a retaining wall (designated as Block 1 in the 2020 Field Report, 12-14, 82-84), however, the large amount of charcoal flecks and the gray-colored soil raise the question as to whether this section was exposed at one point or if fire collapse the structure. If a grave is eventually detected within the boundaries of L-185, then it may indicate a type of mausoleum adjacent or connected to the chapel. However, this is still an unknown.

The coin found in the sealed layer of L-270 proved significant in providing a possible date (1310) when the building flourished. As our chronology section has demonstrated, the chapel itself is an early 14th century construction while certain sections of the cemetery (most likely the southern half) as revealed in Area C may pre-date the chapel by possibly as much as a century or at least by the second half of the 13th century. The demise of the chapel whose main hall (Room 1, L-230) indicated burning, was initially thought to have been a result of fiery conflagration. While the radiocarbon dating taken from this area is not without issues, it seems a possible scenario is that the structure may have been abandoned prior to its ruination by burning discovered within the structure (see Chronology section, pp. 79-80).

The objectives for 2021 included the examination of middens, specifically L-222 and L-223 in the southwest corner of excavation Unit 12. In 2020, the soil fill just below the topsoil yielded large amounts of pottery, including glazed fine ware. Once Unit 13 was delineated and cleared as well, other areas with pottery fragments, ash fill, and animal bones also emerged. Almost all the designated loci in Unit 13 were shallow middens, amorphous in shape, and contained similar cultural material, though the pottery was more common table ware in most cases. As the section on the sondage excavated L-273 indicates, our team has gained information concerning possible progressions of pottery dating between the 11th and 14th centuries. Pottery with gray clay fabric and minimal decoration may have been more common in the 14th century than at other periods, yet gray clay pottery with decorative prints and incisions, including possible cross iconography may have been used more as fine ware in earlier periods, specifically 12th and early 13th centuries.

The excavations in U-13 certainly confirmed that no graves exist south of the funerary chapel. Based on the amount of ashy soil and cultural material, the area was used for burning and waste disposal. This also raises the question concerning the ash-colored bricks that line several graves in the cemetery. Is ash to be found in these bricks and was ash from the burning in U-13 an easily accessible source for their production? These bricks’ chemical composition will need to be analyzed to answer that question. Additionally, it is now confirmed that most of the potsherds discovered within the graves and on top of the skeletal remains were from likely from pottery fragments was used as temper in gray-colored bricks i.e., L-111, see Figs. 50-51) as well as the other mudbricks found in the cemetery.

Two key finds among the cultural material discovered during excavations from this season were in eastern half of Unit 15. First, was the grave in Locus 290 which could only be partially excavated due to the lateness of the dig season with the grave discovered in the eastern baulk of the trench. With only the skull exposed, remains of a boqta headdress were discovered to the south of the skull’s right temporal lobe (see Unit and Loci Description section, pp. 40-42; Cultural Materials section, pp. 48-51). While more thorough investigations will hopefully be conducted next season when the entire grave can be excavated as a block and taken to a laboratory for careful analysis, it is already possible to conclude that this grave is that of young adult woman (early 30s) with Mongolian features.

As our analysis has shown, the boqta is an indication of high cultural status and very preliminary laboratory microscopic analysis (which will have to be fully reported later) shows that one wood fragment discovered was dyed with possible red ochre paint and decorated with gold leaf. A red boqta was often indicative of royalty amongst the Mongolian ruling class. Mongolian women, in particular the wives of Chinggis Khan’s sons and even later descendants were well known to have been Christians. Documentary evidence is replete with Christian women such as the Karait Soqaqtani Bek—wife of Tolui and mother of the Great Khans Mongke, Kublai and the Il-Khan Hülägü— as well as her cousin Dokus Khatun, known for her piety as a Christian in the second half of the 13th century (Baumer 2016, Church of the East, 216-217; see also Weatherford 2010).

Fig. 52. Alma Khatun kayrak.
Photo from Christoph Baumer, The History of Central Asia Vol 3: The Age of Islam and the Mongols, p. 243.

The stone, housed in the Toktogul Satulganov Museum in Bishkek, measures 28 x 27 x 6 cm is a gray silica stone with a cross inscription in the center and Turkic writing in Syriac script encircles the entire surface. Not only does the inscription provide a commemoration of the princess, but also provides the exact date of Khan Changshi’s accension to the throne according to both the Seleucid calendar (1647, or 1335 AD), and the “year of the mouse” it provides the exact day, December 14, “at the light of dawn.” The stone’s inscription also states that the khan “prepared for this Alma Khatun a commemoration” (presumably the stone?). She had passed away (or “fled”) in the “year of the pig.” Based on the 12-year animal cycle observed by the Turkic people, if Alma Khatun who “died at the exact age of 26” died in the year of the pig and Changshi began his rule in the year of the mouse, then his commemoration of her death, inferring the placement of the gravestone, occurred following his enthronement. The inscription demonstrates not only Alma Khatun’s high status, but also the apparent love and care that the khan had for this young lady who departed at such a young age and the attention he gave to commemorating her after he came to power (Zhumagulov 2014, 62-66; Baumer 2016, History, 243). Additionally, the cross inscription in the stone’s center has four Turkic words, one inserted at each crossbar, translated as “1) the living 2) symbol, 3) Jesus, 4) our Savior” which provided a written declaration of the khatun’s faith (Zhumagulov 2014, 64).

13) Zhumagulov (2014, 62) states that the stone was discovered in 1966.

This fascinating story has an even more tragic ending when considering the course of events, as Khan Changsi would join his princess in death just two years later when the khan’s brother, Yesün Temür (1337-1340), had him murdered. The instability continued when Ali Sultan (1340- 1342) seized the throne from Changsi’s brother in the struggle that involved the emergingly powerful Islamic branch of the Chagataid ruling class and massacred six Catholic at the Franciscan mission in Almalyk, including the bishop, Richard de Bourgogne (Baumer 2016, History, 246). It was during this same period that plague was ravaging the region which even today scholars and scientists are trying to determine if this outbreak was the genesis of the Black Death which decimated a third of Europe’s population a decade later.

The Alma Khatun gravestone demonstrates the continued tradition into the 14th century of wives of the ruling khan often being adherents of Christianity. This case provides an example of a Christian Mongolian khatun (princess) connected with the Chagatai khanate in Zhetisu specifically. Thus, the discovery of the adult female in L-290 and its excavation, while still incomplete, may prove to be the first discovery of human remains from Mongolian royalty in a Christian cemetery in Central Asia. Preliminary indications imply that this woman was very high status. This grave, together with the high-status adult female discovered in L-089 during 2019, provides evidence that some members of the Ilibalyk community were high status Christians both economically and politically. It is probable that the Christians there were impacted by the difficult events of the first half of the 14th century, which our excavations firmly establish chronologically. In other words, the excavations provide both confirmation and expansion of the textual and historical context.

The second major cultural find of 2021 was the manuscript fragment discovered in a metal smoking pipe in Unit-15 in the east-central section of Area C. The report has already examined the possible history and our hypothesis concerning how such a fabric with Old Uighur writing may have come to reside inside this possible opium pipe (see Cultual Materials section, pp. 51-52). Again, very preliminary lab analysis indicates that this fragment was made from silk noil, a byproduct of silk production which was utilized as silk paper. If this initial analysis proves correct, then the manuscript fragment was copied on the most expensive type of paper utilized during medieval times, and, according to one of the excavation team members, Dr. Charles Stewart, more expensive than silk cloth (email correspondence, Feb. 3, 2021). This find accompanied with grave of L-290 affirms our continued hypothesis of this community having people of elite status and wealth involved in the trade that the route just north of the city provided as well as the possibility that rare and expensive manuscripts facilitated the transmission of knowledge and/or religious expression. Such a possibility is certainly reasonable to assume given the findings from the Bulayiq site in the Turpan region of northwest China at the turn of the 20th century (Le Coq 1928, 100).(14)

14) The team has also recently become aware of a new excavation that has occurred at Bulayiq conducted by the School of Sociology and Anthropology of Sun Yat-Sen University in Xinjiang and the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology of the Xinjiang Turpan Institute. The expedition produced a 3:33 minute video summary of the dig which was conducted in October/November 2021 and revealed the excavation of the main mound which appears to contain several large rooms including a possible chapel with an east/west orientation and similar in size to the funerary chapel discovered at Ilibalyk. In addition, at least four manuscripts fragments were discovered with what appeared to be Syriac writing, including fragments with red ink, indicative of religious texts; as well as fragments of 2 wooden crosses, possibly wall-mounted; and three plaster fragments with anthropomorphic images including what appears to be a priest with a type of lamp or incense burner. The video provides no narration, so these findings will need to be confirmed hopefully via a written report made available to the international community in the near future.

The past six years of archaeological examination has provided significant advance in our understanding of both the medieval city of Ilibalyk, but also specifically shed light on the Christians who inhabited this city along the trade routes of the Mongolian empire in this section of northern Zhetisu/Semirhechye while they were at their commercial height. It is now possible to conclude that Christians living at Ilibalyk were a significant community contemporary with the known Christian communities in the Chu Valley, Kayalyk (250 km north of Ilibalyk) and Almalyk and impacted economically, socially, and religiously with the greater context. These communities were multi-ethnic, multi-generational and spanned economic classes. Currently, is appears they had their own indigenous clergy, ecclesiastical structures, rites of passage, religious burial rites, and connections with greater Christendom as specifically demonstrated in this modern excavation.

Questions for the site of Ilibalyk remain with our immediate concern being the continued excavation of the cemetery and specifically to carefully complete the complex excavation of the grave in L-290. In addition, with such a large community of Christians, it is not a question of whether they had a church building, but rather exactly where that building is to be found in the context of overall site. The tantalizing manuscript fragment discovered near L-290 in the same excavation unit (U-15) also raises the question as to whether ecclesiastical documents and manuscripts were copied somewhere in the vicinity, though preservation of such manuscripts would be unlikely given the climate which means only fragments found in such things as metal pipes provide small clues. The hope of continued excavations by our international team are filled with nothing less than excitement.

To date the excavations at Usharal-Ilybalyk have provided important glimpses into an area of the world which has been historically unknown. New data obtained from both our pervious and 2021 excavations has allowed us to initially analyze and theoretically reconstruct Usharal- Ilibalyk’s physical characteristics and, thereby, its social and cultural structure. We have worked with great diligence to report our results in upcoming peer-reviewed publications that have either been submitted or are planned within the coming months. As evidenced by this report, progress continued to be made in the areas of chronology and the layout of the Christian cemetery. All the data combined provides a more complete picture of the historical and archaeological context. The high-status graves—particularly the partial excavation of L-290 and the results from L-089 from 2019 is verifying what the historical record also states that women of high social, economic and even political status were a part of the Christian community at Ilibalyk.

As our efforts in L-273 indicate, the beginnings of a ceramic analysis has begun along with stratification that contributes to the relative chronology. Very detailed and careful pottery analysis and typology is still a need. Our radiocarbon results as examined in this report have assisted in providing more specific details regarding the ebb and flow of the population of the Usharal-Ilibalyk site. More thorough ceramics analysis is still needed to determine the source of the materials used in pottery production, and whether they were local or imported, further allowing us to trace trade networks. Soon the examination of the faunal remains from middens within and around the cemetery, will provide a clearer understanding of diet, agriculture, and economic exchange. Thankfully, some of examinations, particularly concerning fabric from the discovered manuscript fragment and concerning some of the special finds delineated in this report are currently undergoing laboratory analysis and will be the subject of subsequent reports.

New forensic, numismatic, ceramic, and biological research is benefiting our overall study— as evidenced by the coin discovered in L-270 which has provided the first absolute date on the site—as well as continued forensic research on the skeletal remains. Grave typologies have even more clarity as our understanding of both grave construction and burial rites have more specific focus. These modern excavations also have both verified and clarified the excavations of pervious Church of the East finds, particularly those of the Chu Valley in southern Zhetisu (Kyrgyzstan) from the 19th and 20th centuries.

However, questions remain and additional scientific analysis such as DNA testing could help us clearly determine some very significant details related to the cemetery’s ethnic composition: whether they were indigenous with centuries of existence in the region or migrants that eventually enculturated; their historical ancestors and modern descendants; and if they were a heterogeneous (inclusive) or homogenous (exclusive) community. Such analysis could confirm or challenge many published hypotheses concerning the Central Asian history and its demography (i.e. nomadic/urban, Iranic/Turkic/Mongol, literate/illiterate etc.) We also need to better understand this population’s diet, general health, and pathologies, etc. Of course, if DNA analysis reveals any association with the Black Death—which is a real possibility—then our site would other significant contributions to our understanding of global history.

We are very grateful to everyone involved in the project and for the continued financial and moral support that is allowing us to uncover some very significant information that contributes to our overall understanding of Ilibalyk specifically and medieval Christianity throughout Central Asia.

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APPENDIX A

Field Forensic Analysis

The Usharal-Ilibalyk 2021 dig team fully excavated 9 graves and partially excavated 2 graves during the season (5 adults and 6 sub-adults). All these graves were in Area C of Field IV which has been the predominate focus of our osteological investigations. Since 2018, the expedition has excavated a total of 94 graves (38 adults, 56 juveniles) in the cemetery. For the first time, our expedition included a forensic dentist (Dr.Byung Yeon Lee) who has been able to examine the dental anatomy of the skeletal remains and provide his analysis in this preliminary report (See Dental Forensic Data section, p 81ff). Of particular importance from this analysis is the more specific data regarding age of the interred at time of death as well as any pathology found in conjunction with the skull. It should be kept in mind, however, that all the field investigations should not be considered the final conclusions related to the forensic data represented. Subsequent investigations will be necessary to confirm, correct, and expand what has been discovered.

An osteological worksheet was completed by excavators for the purpose of recording basic features of the human remains. This included noting the type of burial (primary, secondary, individual, multiple); measurements of the major bones; descriptions of the body position, direction, hand, and head position; overall state of preservation; making simple, general age determinations; examination of skull and pelvic features to possibly discern sex in adult remains; and whether grave goods were present. If the remains were that of a sub-adult, i.e. child or infant, no attempt at discerning sex was made. Photos of the skeletal remains included closes ups of the cranium, maxilla/mandible/teeth, pelvic girdle, and any other special features related to the body or grave.

It should be noted that this year a new system of age categorization has been adopted: Fetus (before birth); Infant (0-3 yrs); Child (3-12 yrs); Adolescent (12-10 yrs); Young Adult (20-35 yrs); Middle Adult (35-50 yrs); and Old Adult (50+ yrs) according to White and Folkens (2005). Previous data has been adjusted to fit these age categories and all future categorizations will reflect this regime.

The adult skeletons, following recordation, were packed separately according to their axial and appendicular arrangements, both right and left, with individual labels and then the entire skeleton was carefully boxed and labeled. Remains of infants or small children were packed together and labeled.

Each skeleton is listed in this forensic analysis numerically according to loci number. To understand the context of these remains archaeologically, we refer the reader to the Unit and Loci Descriptions. See also the grave comparison worksheet in Appendix B, p. 142.

L-111A (Unit-8A)

Measurements:
Femur     43 cm
Humerus 30 cm
Radius 23.5 cm
Ulna       26.5 cm
Tibia      35.5 cm
Fibula   L) 33.5 R) 34.5 cm
Cranium 14.08 (dia); 52 (cir.) cm Pelvis (width) 22 cm
Entire length 150 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Left arm at 90-degree angle across abdomen above right arm, right arm at 45- degree angle in upper thoracic region.
Head position: Raised (skull displaced by disturbance from agricultural equipment)

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Most bones present, but skull and left radius disarticulated or displaced due to apparent soil disturbance from either agricultural activity or previous excavation machinery.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Age Estimation: Middle Adult (35-50 yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 91).

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: square Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead: upright Mandible breadth: wide Nuchal crest: smooth Mastoid process: small Mental eminence: triangular

Additional comments/observations: These remains appear to be part of a niche burial with the initial chamber dug to the north of the interment chamber. Sex determination had some mixed cranial features, however, an examination of the ischiopubic ramus had a sharp medial aspect and overall, the pelvic girdle seemed to be more characteristically female. The maxilla had almost no teeth and most were apparently missing prior to interment. The mandible, in contrast, had most of the teeth present except for 2 lower incisors, yet they did show signs of significant ware. The remains appear to have been struck with a plow, displacing the skull to north, but the mandible is clearly on the cervical vertebrae indicating that the head had been raised to face east. This grave appeared to be in association with the infant remains placed in a small brick chamber on the southeastern part of L-111A, labeled L-111B.

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. (based on skull placement)

Directional orientation of the body: Indeterminate, though skull fragments were on the west side of the grave Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Indeterminate

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No
Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Additional comments/observations: This grave may be in association with the adult remains in L-111A. The grave chamber for this infant/stillborn was placed in the northeast corner of the bricks for L-111A. The remains were very small and fragmented. The bones were too fragile to be able to keep them in situ but could only be removed from the soil. They were collected with the only other recognizable bones among the fragments being 3 ribs and possibly a clavicle bone. One partial orbit bone from the cranium was found along with an underdeveloped sacrum. A few milk teeth were found and following the analysis by our on- site dental pathologist, it was determined that these teeth had never erupted from the mandible. Thus, it is believed these remains come from either a newborn or stillborn child.

Excavation year: 2021.

Measurements:
Femur missing Humerus missing Radius missing Ulna missing

Tibia 16 cm (partial) Fibula 15.5 (partial) Cranium missing Pelvis (width) missing Entire length N/A

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine, based on position of feet.
Directional orientation of the body: Surmised that the head was at the west based on position of feet in grave
Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Indeterminate

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less). Only feet and lower tibiae and fibulae remaining.

Age Estimation: Child (3-12 yrs)(?) Based on size of feet and lower leg bones.

Additional comments/observations: This grave was at the mouth of Unit 10, the 45 (N/S) x 2 E/W) meter- long test trench dug in 2019 used to determine the cemetery’s southern boundary. Final clearing of the area of around the probable grave, a child-sized mandible was found along with one milk tooth as well as one rib and three vertebrae on the west side of the grave. These remains, if in association with the leg and feet bones to the east along with the size of the body’s feet, possibly indicate a child over 3 years of age, but this remains speculative. A small right scapula was also found. Additionally, during this final clearing stage, an adult-sized tooth was found in the soil as well. This tooth appeared to be an upper front incisor which also had shoveling. Overall, this grave had been highly disturbed, and another grave appeared to have been in proximity. A small stone was also found in the location of where the body was interred.

Measurements:
Femur 40 cm
Humerus   30 cm
Radius 23 cm
Ulna     21 cm
Tibia    33 cm
Fibula   32 cm Cranium 51 cm (cir)
Pelvis (width) 20 (width) Entire length: not taken

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Folded at a right, 90-degree angle across the waist. Right arm on top of left.
Head position: Slightly raised, yet soil pillow appeared behind neck rather than head. Feet and legs higher than head in altitude.

Grave Goods: 1 loop earring (silver?) in situ at left side of skull; 3 stones, potsherd at location of left elbow.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Left femur and patella completely missing. Pelvis displaced apparently struck by plow.

Age determination estimation features: Old Adult (50+ yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 83).

Epiphyses fused: Yes Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: Yes

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: pronounced
Forehead: sloped Mandible breadth: narrow Nuchal crest: smooth Mastoid process: small
Mental eminence: pronounced

Additional comments/observations: The grave apparently was disturbed since the scapula and clavicle were pushed upward and to the north. Entire skull also appeared to have been displaced as the mandible was askance to the north away from the rest of the skull. Teeth appeared very worn with some missing at the time of interment. A portion of the pelvis appeared to also have been disturbed. The left femur was completely missing. Right femur appeared to have significant “bowing” as shown by the outward curvature of the bone. Eburnation and marginal lipping possible in left femur and tibia at knee. Dental analysis conducted.

Measurements:
Femur (?) 16.5 cm Humerus missing Radius missing Ulna missing
Tibia not taken, fragmented. Fibula missing
Cranium fragmented Pelvis (width) missing Entire length: not taken

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Raised on soil pillow.

Grave Goods: 2 large potsherds found underneath body at lower level. May not be in association with the remains.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less)
Most bones disarticulated, one femur (left?) and tibia were found. Several milk teeth in various locations. Finger phalanges found in thoracic area. Some vertebrae found during final clearing.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: indeterminate Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Measurements:
Femur 39.5 cm
Humerus 29.5 cm
Radius 21 cm
Ulna     23 cm
Tibia    32.7 cm
Fibula    28 cm Cranium fragmented Pelvis (width) 19 cm Entire length: 153 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east. Position of hands: Crossed at lower abdomen with left arm on top of right arm.
Head position: Raised with soil pillow.

Grave Goods: Glass paste bead with red glaze flecks found around cervical vertebrae.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Cervical vertebrae missing, all feet bones missing along with left tibia.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: Indeterminate

Sex determination observations: Skull too fractured to make determination in the field.

Additional comments/observations: Adult male based on the features of the pelvis with an angular sacrum and blunt ischiopubic ramus. Damage to skull prohibited a complete sex dimorphic analysis of skull. Based on the wear of the teeth this male was probably middle-aged at time of interment. The soil fill in and around the locus contained disarticulated juvenile remains which indicates the possibility that a child’s grave was interred close to this adult. Dental analysis conducted, see 2021 report.

Measurements:
Femur 14 cm
Humerus 11 cm
Radius 9.5 cm
Ulna 8 cm
Tibia 11 cm
Fibula 11 cm Cranium fractured Pelvis (width) 5.2 cm Entire length: 72 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Prone along sides Head position: Raised, facing
south.

Grave Goods: 3 stones, including 1
rectangular shaped piece of red granite, 1 under left humerus, and one flattened on both sides under right Illum.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Bones of the hands, feet, and right radius and ulna missing.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No
Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Additional comments/observations: The skull was separated by the fissures though predominately intact with most of the remains in a good overall state of preservation, though some bones, especially the ribs were somewhat disturbed. The head was slightly raised, but in this case gazing south/southeast which may indicate intentional placement in that direction. The legs appear to have been drawn together at the feet. The left arm was placed along the side of the body with the left hand along the ilium of the pelvis. The grave was covered with gray-colored mudbricks as indicative of the brick found on the thoracic region (which had a pink tint, possibly due to calcination or burning). Other bricks were especially visible in the lower appendicular region of the skeleton with gray soil fill on the outer sides of the legs as well as between the femurs and tibias. Preliminary field analysis of the teeth suggests a child between 2-4 years at time of death. Dental analysis conducted.

Excavation year: 2021

Measurements:
Femur     44 cm
Humerus 32 cm
Radius     24 cm
Ulna          25.6 cm
Tibia         35 cm
Fibula       34 cm
Cranium 51.8 cm (cir); 16 cm (dia) Pelvis (width) 20.5 cm
Entire length 142 cm
Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east. Position of hands: Left arm at 90-
degree angle and resting above the left Illum; right arm below the left at approximately a 130-degree angle resting across the right Illum.
Head position: Raised, facing southeast and a slightly downward.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: No
Age Estimation: Young Adult (20-35 yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 86-87).
Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead: upright
Mandible breadth:
Nuchal crest: smooth
Mastoid process: small
Mental eminence: pronounced
Possible Sex: Female

Additional comments/observations: Just to the west and immediately behind the skull, a large animal bone (probably cow) was found. It was at the same level as the skull. This could have been a fragment included with brick as temper, but its large size suggests this not to be the case. Examination of the skull and pelvis revealed that the sex of the remains was female based on the sharp medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus and the cranial features such as a sloped forehead, rounded orbits, the smooth nuchal crest, and small mastoid process. All epiphyses were fused confirming an age of more than 28 years. Dental analysis done suggesting the interred was 34 years old at time of death.

Excavation year: 2021

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine.
Directional orientation of the body: Head at west
Position of hands: Unknown Head position: not raised, gaze to the north.

Grave Goods: Possible boqta headdress found to south of temporal, including 18-20 glass paste beads, a cylindrical bronze/copper phylactery. Possible beech bark (which the boqta is usually constructed from) was also revealed. Wood fragment also revealed with a small amount of red pigment. Item was not excavated.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: N/A
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: N/A

Age Estimation: Young Adult (20-35 yrs) Based on teeth analysis. (See Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 88-89).

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead: sloped Mandible breadth: narrow Nuchal crest: unknown Mastoid process: unknown Mental eminence: unknown

Additional comments/observations: The delicate nature of the grave goods and because the grave intruded into the eastern baulk of Unit 15, it was determined to leave these remains in place until a future excavation. Dental analysis undertaken on site.

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine.
Directional orientation of the body: Head
at west Position of hands: Unknown Head position: Not raised.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: N/A
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: N/A

Age Estimation: Old Adult (50+) Based on lack of teeth that appeared to have been missing pre-mortem.

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: square Orbital rim: blunt
Sub-orbital ridges: pronounced
Forehead: sloped Mandible breadth: unknown Nuchal crest: unknown Mastoid process: unknown Mental eminence: unknown

Additional comments/observations: This grave was only partially excavated because the grave extended into the eastern baulk of Unit 15. In addition, the body appeared to have been either encased in a wooden coffin or cover. it was determined to leave these remains in place until a future excavation.

Excavation year: 2021.

Body Description:
Body position: indeterminate Directional orientation of the body:
indeterminate
Position of hands: indeterminate Head position: indeterminate

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less).
Bones highly disheveled located in only one area of the grave. No skull present. One femur, some ribs, and a possible clavicle present.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No
Milk teeth: None found Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Additional comments/observations: A small and scattered collection of infant-sized bones with no skull was in the eastern side of the suspected grave pit. No grave goods found, however, a rectangular-shaped stone with a red tint with no inscriptions appeared to have been placed on the western end of the suspected grave.

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

Description of the Ceramic Collection

Ib_21_C_IV_111A

Non-glazed vessel fragments Handles
This pottery fragment (below) is a loop-shaped horizontal handle. It was made of a strip of clay and has a finger indentation in the center which may have provided for a more comfortable grip. It is made of a dense, well-variegated fabric with a light red, pink-beige tint, with a few inclusions of fine sand, mica, and mineral particles visible in the cross-section. Due to uneven firing, the inner color of the fabric has a grayish tint. The handle has a flattened, oval cross-section,

2.4 cm wide and 1.2 cm thick, its edge is slightly raised upwards.
Ill. 1 - Ib_21_C_IV_111A_001

Ib_21_C_IV_212

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below) comes from a cooking vessel. It was made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense gray fabric, with a few inclusions of fine sand particles and mica visible in the cross section. The vessel’s surface on both the outside and inside is covered with a light gray slip. The rim has a thickened lip and forms an ledge 1.9 cm wide. On its outer surface is a wavy belt decoration made by combing. The lip of the rim has an oval cross-section and a strip is attached to the side along the lip with alternating finger impressions. The rim’s diameter is 14 cm, on its inner side the wall’s is 0.5-0.7 cm thick.

Ill. 2 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_001

This fragment (below) is from a rim jug-type vessel made on a potter's wheel from medium- variegated, dense light-colored fabric with a yellow-beige tint and numerous inclusions of fine sand particles, mica, and minerals visible in the cross section. The sherd’s surface is poorly preserved; in some places, a partially preserved layer of light-colored slip is visible. The ridge- shaped rim is everted with an oval-shaped profile. The rim was calculated as 14 cm in diameter along its outer lip, the wall is 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

Ill. 3 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_009

This rim fragment (below) is from a probable cooking vessel made on a potter's wheel comprised of a well-variegated dense fabric with a light red, yellow-beige tint. Due to uneven firing, the fabric’s interior has a gray tint. The fragment’s surface on both the inner and outer sides is covered with a layer of light-shaded beige clay which had a more liquid consistency. The rim is thickened and forms a flat lip 1.1 cm wide. The lip is oval in the cross-section and its diameter is difficult to determine, but is is calculated as approximately 19 cm, the vessel’s sidewall is 0.5-0.7 cm thick.

This rim fragment (below) is from a small vessel, presumably a bowl, made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense fabric with a brownish-beige tint. It has a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. Both the outer and inner surface of the fragment is covered with a light beige slip. It is decorated with waving line utilizing a combing tool and looped indentations. The rim is slightly narrowed forming a sub-rectangular cross-section. The rim’s diameter was calculated at 15 cm and and is 0.6-0.7 cm thick.

This rim fragment (below) is presumably part of jug’s neck and made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense light-red fabric. It has a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of light- colored fabric which was more liquid in consistency. The rim is inverted with a flattened-oval profile. Its diameter was calculated at 7 cm and is 0.4-0.7 cm thick.

Ill. 6 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_005

Ornamented sidewalls

This sidewall fragment (below) is presumably part of a shoulder from a vessel made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense, red-brick colored fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a light- colored slip with a yellow-beige tint. A decoration of inscribed alternating vertical lines is also on the outside. Concentric, horizontal lines were applied below with a combing tool with indentations forming a line above them. The wall is 0.8 cm thick.

Ill. 7 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_I002

Other
The fragment (below) is a lamp spout made of a well-variegated, dense fabric with a light- red color. It has a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The surface of the fragment is covered with a partially preserved layer of light green-beige slip. The height of the remaining spout is 2.2 cm. It is 4.8 cm long, and its base is 0.8 cm thick. These lamps are often glazed, yet this spout either was unfinished or a type of non-glazed lamp not previously discovered at Ilibalyk.

Ill. 8 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_007
This spindle whorl (below) was formed from a vessel sidewall made of a well-variegated dense light-red fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section, thus, it was of secondary usage. One side is covered with a light-colored slip. The spindle is rounded, and its edges are smoothed. Chipping is visible and it has a through hole in the center with a diameter of 0.5 cm. The spindle whorl is 0.6 cm, with a 3.1 cm diameter.

Ill. 9 - Ib_21_C_IV_212_008

Ib_21_C_IV_223

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below) is from a large pot made of a medium-variegated, dense red fabric, with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. Its outer

surface and partially on its inner surface is covered with a light beige slip. The rim is everted with an oval-shaped profile, the bent lip forms an extension 2.9 cm wide, and the rim was calculated to be 31 cm in diameter. The vessel’s sidewall is 1.2 cm thick.

Ill. 10 - Ib_21_C_IV_223_001

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall fragment (below) is part of the vessel’s shoulder. It was made of a medium- variegated, loose fabric with a gray and grayish-brown tint with few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles and minerals visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a dense layer of light, yellow-beige slip. On the inner surface, traces of a dense, grayish-black dark slip, are visible on the sidewall. The outer wall has a decoration forming two concentric lines and on the sides are wavy diametrical lines. The sidewall is 0.7-1 cm thick.

Ill. 11 - Ib_21_C_IV_223_002

Other
This ceramic fragment (below) is presumably the lower part of a waterflow pipe (kubura), made of a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with very few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a layer of whitish plaque. On the inside, fingerprints are visible on the wall in diametrical concentric circles. The pipe is cylindrical, its base has a slight bell-shape, and its edges are sub-rectangular in the cross-section. It had a calculated diameter of 12 cm and is 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_262

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below) is from a molded bowl made of a medium variegated gray-brown fabric with numerous inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. Due to uneven firing, the fabric’s color in the sherd’s interior is gray. The outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of clay with a gray-beige tint which was more liquid in consistency. Traces of soot and charring are also visible. The rim has a slightly everted lip with a flattened-oval profile. The bowl was carinated. It rim’s diameter was calculated as 17 cm and the sidewall is 0.4-1 cm thick.

Ill. 13 - Ib_21_C_IV_262_001

This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel with a well-variegated dense, gray fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a light-colored slip, the lip is thickened with an oval-shaped profile. Along the lip of the rim, a strip is attached on the surface of which are applied alternating finger indentation, forming a wavy pattern. The rim’s diameter is calculated as 14 cm, the vessel’s sidewall was 0.8 cm thick.

This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, probably a pot, made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense light yellowish-beige fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. The outer and inner surface is covered with a light-colored slip. The rim is slightly thickened into an oval profile. On the outer wall is a carved decoration in the form of wavy lines drawn with a combing tool as well as a concentric straight line just below the lip. The rim’s diameter was calculated as 26 cm, and the sidewall is 0.8-1 cm thick.

Ill. 15 - Ib_21_C_IV_262_003

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall fragment is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel with a well-variegated, dense, gray fabric. It contained a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a dark gray slip. It also has a raised protrusion with a rolled design along the outside of the protrusion with alternating lines slightly inclined to the right. The sidewall measures 0.9-1 cm thick.

Ill. 16 - Ib_21_C_IV_262_004

This sidewall fragment (below) is from a molded vessel made by hand from a medium- variegated dense fabric with a light orange-beige tint with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica

particles visible in the cross section. The fragment’s outer surface is covered with a dense layer of light-colored slip. An incised decoration also appears on the outside with a plant motif in the form of a twig. The sidewall is 1.3-1.4 cm thick.

This sidewall fragment (below) is from a molded vessel made by hand from a medium- variegated, loose fabric with a light-gray, beige tint containing numerous inclusions of fine sand and mica particles and minerals visible in the cross section. The outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of gray clay which was more liquid in consistency. Traces of soot and charring are also visible. On the outer side is an inscribed decoration with a plant motif in the form of a twig consisting of straight lines applied with a combing tool. The sidewall is 0.7-1.3 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_266

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably a pot, made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated dense light-red fabric with an orange tint. It contains a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a light- colored slip. The rim has a thickened lip that is everted forming a sub-rectangular profile 1.5 cm wide. This vessel had a low neck, 1.4 cm high, with a calculated rim diameter of 16 cm. The inner side of the wall measured 0.6-0.9 cm thick.

Ill. 20 – Ib_21_C_IV_266_002

This rim fragment (below) is from a pot made on a potter's wheel with a well-variegated, dense fabric of a light color with a yellow-beige tint. The outer surface is covered with a light beige slip. The rim is slightly everted with an oval-shaped profile. The rim was calculated having a diameter of 30 cm. The outer side of the rim has tightly inscribed concentric grooves on the surface and slightly lower on the wall is a design of wavy, concentric lines drawn with a combing tool. The sidewall measures 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

This rim fragment (below) is from a storage pot made on a potter's wheel from a well- variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. The surface of the vessel has no slip, and the rim is strongly everted with an oval-shaped cross-section. The rim’s diameter was calculated to be 18 cm. Its sidewall is 0.8-1 cm thick.

Ill. 21 – Ib_21_C_IV_266_004

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel with a well- variegated dense, gray fabric with few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a dark-gray slip. A decoration is on the outer side

with concentric carved lines and rounded alternating stamps with a vegetal motif, possibly flower rosettes. The sidewall is 0.8-1.1 cm thick.

Ill. 22 – Ib_21_C_IV_266_I003

Handle
This molded crescent-shaped handle was from a molded vessel made by hand with a medium-variegated, light-colored fabric with a light brown-beige tint and numerous inclusions of fine sand and mica particles and minerals visible in the cross section. The handle was attached to the vessel’s sidewall. The outer surface is covered with a light-colored, yellow-beige tint. Along the handle’s lip are decorative alternating finger indentations. The handle’s lip is slightly raised. The wall of the sherd is 0.6-0.7 cm thick.

Ill. 23 - Ib_21_C_IV_266_005

Base
This flat base fragment (below) is from a small, molded vessel made by hand with a well- variegated, dense light-red fabric with few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The sidewall of the vessel measure 0.6-0.8 cm thick with the base measuring 0.6 cm. The inside of the base is oval and calculated as 5.2 cm in diameter.

Ill. 24 – Ib_21_C_IV_266_006

This disc-shaped base fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated dense light-colored fabric with a yellow-beige tint. It contained a few inclusions

of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The base is strongly concave from the outside. Three carved, straight lines are visible on the surface that extend from the center to the edge. The base measures 6.4 cm in diameter and is 1.1 cm in height. The sherd is 1-1.1 cm thick.

Ill. 25 - Ib_21_C_IV_266_007

Glazed vessel fragments Rims

Ill. 26 - Ib_21_C_IV_266_I001

This rim fragment (below) from a small bowl or drinking cup was made of well-variegated, dense light-gray fabric with very few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. Both sides of the fragment’s surface are covered with a transparent, colorless glaze over a white slip background and on the inner side is also an underglaze monochrome decoration (writing?) made with brown pigment. The rim is straight, and the lip forms a flattened oval in the profile. The rim’s diameter was calculated at 20 cm and the sidewall is 0.4 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_267

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel was made on a potter's wheel comprised of a dense, medium-variegated gray fabric with numerous inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The vessel’s rim was made separately after which it was attached to the body which indicated molding on the inside. The vessel’s outer surface is covered with a partially preserved layer of light-gray slip. The rim is thickened forming a flat profile 1.2 cm wide. The lip is oval in its cross section. The outer wall also has an inscribed line design with semi- circular U-shaped elements. The rim’s diameter was calculated at 15 cm and the sidewall is 0.7-
1.1 cm thick.

This rim fragment (below) is from a molded bowl-type vessel made of medium-sized, loosely variegated redbrick-colored fabric with numerous inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in its cross section. Due to uneven firing, the fabric’s color in the inner section of the sherd is gray indicating a lower firing temperature. The outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of orange-beige fabric which was more liquid in consistency. Traces of soot and charring are also visible. The rim is straight with a slightly thickened lip with an oval-shaped profile. The wall of the sherd is highly chipped. The rim’s diameter is calculated as 29 cm and sidewall is 0.6-
0.8 cm wide.

Ill. 28 - Ib_21_C_IV_267_002

This potsherd (below) is from a narrow neck of a vessel made of a medium-variegated, dense fabric of light-red color with a few inclusions of fine sand, mica, and mineral particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a densely layered light-colored slip, with a pale beige (almost white) tint. The rim’s lip is everted with a flattened-oval profile. Its diameter is calculated as 3.8 cm. The neck flared outward as it progressed down the vessel. The sherd measures 0.4-0.8 cm thick.

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall (below) is from a hand-made, molded vessel comprised of a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a densely layered, light-gray slip. The outer wall is decorated with alternating convex, cross-shaped stamps slightly lower is a concentric, straight line. The sherd is 0.6-0.7 cm thick.

Ill. 30 - Ib_21_C_IV_267_004
Handles
This loop-shaped horizontal handle (below) is from a vessel made of a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with minor inclusions of fine sand particles. The handle’s surface is covered with a partially preserved dark-gray slip layer. Traces of soot and charring are also visible. The handle was twisted prior to firing and has characteristic striping as a result in the oval-shaped profile. It measures 2.7 cm wide and 2 cm thick. The handle is attached to a remaining part of the vessel’s sidewall, which is 0.9 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_270

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims

Ill. 32 - Ib_21_C_IV_270_001

This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably a cooking pot, made on a potter's wheel from a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer and inner surface is covered with a gray fabric layer which was more liquid in consistency. The rim has a narrowed, inverted, thickened lip with an oval-shaped profile. Its diameter is calculated at 21 cm and the sidewall measured 0.7-0.8 cm thick. The outer side of the vessel is decorated with inscribed concentric straight and wavy lines which forms a diametrical belt.

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel and is comprised of a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of large and small sand particles, as well as inclusions of mica which are visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a layer of gray fabric which was more liquid in consistency and on the outer side is a design in the form of carved concentric straight and wavy lines as well as small, narrowed notches that form diametrical alternating belts.

Ib_21_C_IV_273

Non-glazed vessel fragments Rims
This rim fragment (below), combined from three individually discovered potsherds, is from a vessel, presumably a large storage pot, made of medium-variegated, loose, gray-colored fabric with numerous inclusions of large and small particles of sand, mica, and minerals visible in the cross section. The outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of light-gray fabric which was more liquid in consistency. The everted rim’s lip forms a gentle ledge 1.7 cm wide forming a sub- rectangular profile. The rim’s diameter is 14 cm, and it has U-shaped lines which encircled the pot at the vessel’s neck. The sidewall is 0.6-1.1 cm thick.

Ill. 34 - Ib_21_C_IV_273_004
This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably a molded cooking pot, made of medium-variegated, light-gray fabric with numerous inclusions of large and small sand, mineral, and chamotte particles visible in the cross section. The fragment’s outer and inner surface is covered with a layer of gray fabric which was more liquid in consistency. Traces of soot and charring are visible on the outside lip of the rim. The rim, with a thickened and sharply everted lip, forms a horizontal surface 2.2 cm wide. On the rim’s surface are several rows of concentric, diametrical lines. The rim’s lip is oval shaped in the profile. The vessel’s diameter was calculated at 20 cm. The sidewall measures 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

Ornamented sidewalls
This sidewall fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel comprised of a well-variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of large and small sand particles visible in the cross section. The fragment’s outer surface is covered with a light, beige tinted slip layer which is also inscribed with a wavy line design drawn with a combing tool. The sidewall measures 0.5-0.6 cm thick.

This sidewall fragment (below) is from a vessel made on a potter's wheel with a well- variegated, dense gray fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. The fragment’s outer and inner surface is covered with a gray fabric layer which was more liquid in consistency. The outer side is richly decorated with two types of stamps made with a vegetal rosette motif, and with small cone-shaped rivet moldings which are slightly cleaved with vertical notches visible on their sides. The sidewall measures 0.6-0.7 cm thick and presumably from the vessel’s shoulder. This was classified as a special find and one of the floral motifs may be representative of crosses.

Ill. 37 - Ib_21_C_IV_273_I001

Bases
This disc-shaped base (below) is from a vessel made of a medium-variegated, dense red fabric with numerous inclusions of large and small sand particles visible in the cross section. Due to uneven firing, the fabric’s color in the sherd’s interior maintained its gray and brown tint due to lower temperatures during firing. The fragment’s outer surface shows traces of a light yellowish- beige slip. A concentric clay strip was laid across the base’s edge. Along this strip’s surface are large finger indentations applied decoratively. The base is calculated as having a 15 cm diameter and the remaining part of the base measures 2.2 cm. The vessel’s sidewall is 1.1 cm thick.

Ill. 38 - Ib_21_C_IV_273_005

This annular pan fragment (below) is from a vessel made of a dense, medium-variegated gray fabric with numerous inclusions of large and small particles of sand, mica, and minerals visible in the cross section. The fragment’s surface is covered with spots of soot and charring. The base is 1.5 cm high with a calculated diameter of 15 cm. The base is 1 cm thick with the sidewall of the vessel measuring 0.8 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_276

Non-glazed vessel fragments. Rims.
This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably a pot, made on a potter's wheel comprised of a medium-variegated, dense light-red fabric with a yellow-beige tint. It contained numerous inclusions of large and small sand particles visible in the cross section. Due to uneven firing, the color the interior of the sherd’s fabric maintained its gray tint due to firing at lower temperatures. The vessel’s outer surface is covered with a light-beige slip and the rim, with a thickened inverted narrow lip, is oval-shaped in the profile. The lip forms a horizonal platform 2.1 cm wide. A decorative clay strip with alternating finger indentations was pressed onto the rim’s lip. The rim’s diameter was calculated as 14 cm and the vessel’s sidewall measured 0.8-1 cm thick.

Ill. 40 - Ib_21_C_IV_276_001

This rim fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably a pot, made on a potter's wheel from a medium-variegated dense, red fabric with a brown tint. It contained a few inclusions of fine particles of sand, mica, and minerals visible in the cross section. The fragment’s outer surface is covered with a dense light-colored slip layer with a yellowish-beige tint. The rim is inverted and narrowed with a straight, slightly thickened lip in the oval-shaped profile. The vessel’s diameter was calculated as 18 cm with the sidewalls of the vessel measuring 0.4-0.7 cm. The vessel was decorated with inscribed wavy and concentric line utilizing a pottery comb.

Ill. 41 - Ib_21_C_IV_276_002

Ornamented sidewalls.
This sidewall fragment (below) is from of a vessel, presumably a part of a shoulder, made of a dense, well-variegated gray fabric, with a few inclusions of fine sand and mica particles visible in the cross section. The outer surface is covered with a layer of gray fabric which was more liquid in consistency and the outer wall has a decoration of vertical lines which appear to divide the fragment into sections. These lines were applied utilizing a combing tool. In between the lines are alternating stamps using vegetal and geometric styles and hemispherical lines drawn with a hollow tube. The vessel wall measures 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

Ill. 42 - Ib_21_C_IV_276_003

This sidewall fragment (below) is from a vessel, presumably the rim of a small jug, made of a well-variegated, dense light-red fabric with a few inclusions of fine sand particles visible in the cross section. Due to uneven firing at lower temperatures, the color of the interior of the sherd’s fabric has a yellowish tint. The fragment’s outer surface is covered with a dense, light-colored, yellowish-beige slip. The outer surface is also decorated with an inscribed wide belt utilizing a pottery comb consisting of concentric straight lines with and wavy lines in between. The vessel’s sidewall measured 0.6-0.7 cm thick.

Ill. 43 - Ib_21_C_IV_276_004
Handles.
This nob handle fragment (below) was from a jug with its lower section attached to part of a surviving sidewall. The fragment was made of a well-variegated, dense light-red fabric with a few inclusions of small and large sand particles visible in the cross section. The handle’s surface is covered with a layer of whitish plaque and the slip is not visible. A finger indentation is visible at the handle’s point of attachment to the body. The handle has a flattened, oval shape and measures
4.1 cm wide and 1.1 cm thick. The vessel’s sidewall measures 0.7-0.8 cm thick.

Ib_21_C_IV_290

Non-glazed vessel fragments. Rims.

Ill. 45 - Ib_21_C_IV_290_001
This rim fragment (below) from a small jug was made on a potter's wheel comprised of a well-variegated, dense light-red fabric with an orange-beige tint. It has a few visible inclusions of large and small sand particles. The outer surface is covered with a light-colored slip. The rim has a straight, low neck with a thickened lip which is oval shaped in the profile. It has a loop-shaped, vertical handle attached to the side of the vessel’s shoulder and is a flattened-oval in its profile. It measures 2.7 cm wide, 0.8 cm thick. In the central part of the handle along the back is an indentation along its entire length. The rim’s diameter was calculated at 13 cm and the vessel’s sidewall is 0.7-0.9 cm thick.

Graphic Tables of Drawings from Cultural Material Finds

Ill. 46 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_212_001; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_212_009;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_212_003; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_212_004; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_212_005;
6. Ib_21_C_IV_008; 7. Ib_21_C_IV_212_I002; 8. Ib_21_C_IV_212_007

Ill. 48 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_262_002; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_262_001;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_262_003; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_262_004; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_262_005;
6. Ib_21_C_IV_262_006

Ill. 49 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_266_002; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_266_008;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_266_004; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_266_I003; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_266_005;
6. Ib_21_C_IV_266_007; 7. Ib_21_C_IV_266_006; 8. Ib_21_C_IV_266_I001

Ill. 50 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_267_002; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_267_001;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_267_003; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_267_004; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_267_005

Ill. 51 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_273_004; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_273_002;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_273_003; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_273_I001; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_273_005;
6. Ib_21_C_IV_273_006

Ill. 53 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_276_001; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_276_002;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_276_004; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_276_003; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_276_005

Ill. 54 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_290_001; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_111A_001;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_270_001; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_270_002; 5. Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002 – I004;

Ill. 55 - 1. Ib_21_C_IV_276_I001; 2. Ib_21_C_IV_268_I001;
3. Ib_21_C_IV_262_I002; 4. Ib_21_C_IV_277_I001;
5. Ib_21_C_IV_276_I003; 6. Ib_21_C_IV_280_I001

Ill. 56 - Ib_21_C_IV_263_I001

APPENDIX D

Collection inventory

Cast iron cauldron fragments. Found in Locus 253 by means of a metal detector. Made of cast iron.
7 fragments of sidewalls, one has a crescent-shaped nob handle, Vessel’s sidewalls were 0.6 cm thick, total weight 957 g.
Coordinates: 44T 410196 4886992 UTM, elevation: 596.992 m. asl.

Unit 13
Glass paste bead with traces of turquoise glaze visible on the bead’s surface.
The bead’s shape is triangular with the upper part narrowed and widening towards the base.
Dimensions: 0.77 x 1.34 x 0.5 cm, weight
0.94 g.
Found in Locus 262 during leveling operations.
Manufactured using drawn and marvering technology.
Coordinates: 44T 410180 4887010 UTM, elevation: 597.168 m. asl.

Kayrak (gravestone). Found during leveling operations in Locus 262.
Inscribed from a river stone with a reddish hue. Cross iconography, no other visible inscriptions. The bottom edge of the stone is broken off.
Dimensions: Stone 10.6 x 12 x 3.5 cm,
weight 1.5 kg.
Cross 8.6 x 7.6 x 0.2 cm.
Coordinates: 44T 410206 4886989 UTM, elevation: 597.473 m. asl.

Silver coin. Found in Locus 270 during leveling operations.
Dirham, minted in Almalyk (NW China) Mongolian Chagatai khanate, 689 AH (1310 AD), anonymous.

Made by the minting method. Coordinates: 44T 410201 4886986 UTM, elv. 597.102 m. asl).

Locus 224. Boulder. While clearing the soil around Locus-230 (Room 1) a large whitish- gray boulder which rested on the ledge of the southern wall (L-253) near the possible southern entrance to the structure of Unit 12 was discovered. It lay at a level of 597.404 m asl. and lay

Locus 228. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the western part of Unit 12, excavators discovered this stone along the southern wall (Locus 253) of Room 1 (Locus 230). It was lined with mud bricks in an east-west direction. This large

Locus 232. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the central part Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410203.254; y: 4886998.962; and at a level of

Locus 233. Burnt root from a tree. While clearing in the space of the area of the partition wall (locus 244) from the eastern side of Room 1 (locus 230), traces of burning, charcoal, and ash were found at UTM coordinates x: 410195.474; y: 4887001.735; beginning at a level of

Locus 249. L-shaped layout of adobe bricks. This L-shaped layout of adobe bricks was located on the north side of the northern ledge (locus 250) of Room 1 (locus 230) at UTM coordinates x: 410202.275; y: 4887003.025; at a level of 597.494 m. asl.

Locus 250. Northern inner ledge of Room 1 (Locus 230). While clearing a layer in the central part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410193.848; y: 4887006.017; at a level of

Locus 008. Burial. A human skeleton, located in the southeastern section of Unit 6 found at a level of 597.776 m. asl., at UTM coordinates x: 4887021.272, y: 410295.138. (Appendix C, pgs. 145-149-figs 72-96).

Locus 020. This locus identified a layer of gray, mixed soil in the profile of the baulk. It was the second layer and was completely covered from above by the topsoil layer (locus 019). In the lower part of the profile, it covered a layer of yellow mixed soil (locus 021).

Locus 027. This gray, loess lens was the third layer in the stratigraphic profile of Pit 1, located in the northern section of the profile in a layer of yellow loam with river gravel inclusions. It had a loose structure and extended from the 15 to 27 cm mark and ranged in height from 30 to 48 cm.

Locus 029. This ash lens was the smallest feature within Pit 1’s stratigraphic profile. Its structure consisted of accumulations of charcoal and ash. It extended from the 80 to 90 cm mark and ranged in height from 30 to 35 cm.

Locus 030. This fired brick was identified in the southern section of the stratigraphic profile of Pit 1 within a layer of mixed, yellow loam. It extended from the 1.05 to 1.10 m mark and ranged in height from 20 to 32 cm.

Table 2. Carpology Samples after Flotation

L-216 (Unit-12, Area C,)

L-008 (Unit-6, Area B, L-008)